Exploring Society I · Chapter 6 — The Age of Reorganisation

Imagine a big jigsaw puzzle that falls off the table. The pieces scatter, and then people start fitting them together again into new and different pictures. That is roughly what happened to India's political map after the Maurya empire.

The end of the Mauryas. Very little is known about Ashoka's successors. Historians generally accept that around 185 BCE the last Maurya emperor was assassinated by his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Shunga. The empire broke up hardly half a century after Ashoka.

Why 'reorganisation'? Many new kingdoms rose across the Subcontinent. Often they were earlier tributary kingdoms of the Mauryas that now became independent. Some scholars call this the age of reorganisation, because existing regions were being reorganised into new kingdoms that constantly competed to become powerful. The map of India, and people's lives, changed a great deal.

How kingdoms competed.

• Warfare: fighting for territory, especially border areas, which were important for keeping a kingdom safe from attack.
• Matrimonial alliances: marriages arranged between royal families of neighbouring kingdoms, often a king offering his daughter in marriage, to cement an alliance peacefully.

The weakened northwest was also exposed to invasions from outside the Subcontinent.

Not just war. Alongside these political events there was a burst of art, architecture and literature, and rich cultural exchange. Newcomers from outside were deeply influenced by Indian culture, and Indian art absorbed new ideas too.

Reading the timeline. This chapter covers roughly 200 BCE to 300 CE. Remember that BCE years count down towards 1 BCE, then CE years count up from 1 CE; there is no year zero. So from 200 BCE to 300 CE is about 500 years (exactly 499, because there is no year zero).

Picture a horse wandering freely across the countryside, followed by soldiers. Any land it crosses without challenge is claimed by the king who sent it. That was the ashvamedha, a ritual the Shunga founder performed.

The Shunga dynasty. Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty, which ruled parts of north and central India. His empire was smaller than the Maurya empire, but he kept it safe from invaders. After some early fighting with the Greeks, he kept friendly relations with them. The Shunga empire did not last long after him; about a century later it was gone.

The ashvamedha yajna. This Vedic ritual was performed by many rulers to declare their supremacy. A horse, accompanied by soldiers, was allowed to roam. Territory it crossed unchallenged was considered part of the king's realm; any ruler who stopped the horse had to fight to decide who was supreme. Pushyamitra performed it to establish himself as a most powerful ruler. The Ramayana also describes Rama performing the ashvamedha.

Ideas and literature. The Shunga period saw a revival of Vedic rituals and practices, but other schools of thought continued to flourish. Sanskrit became one of the preferred languages for philosophy and literature. The Yoga Sutras, which you may have met in Physical Education, were compiled by Patanjali in this period.

Art at Bharhut. The Shungas supported literature, art and architecture. The Bharhut stupa in present-day Madhya Pradesh was probably first built in Ashoka's time, but the Shungas added beautifully carved stone railings and reliefs (carvings that stand out from a flat surface) showing stories from the Buddha's life. These are among the earliest examples of Buddhist art. Carvings include the goddess Lakshmi, singers and dancers, and elephants holding up the wheel of dharma.

Clues to daily life. Objects of the Shunga age include terracotta figures, an ivory comb, bead necklaces, bronze bangles covered with a thin layer of gold and even a pillar showing a Greek warrior. Such objects tell historians what people wore, how they decorated themselves and what they used every day.

Imagine a coin with a picture of a two-masted ship sailing over waves. Coins like this, found in the Deccan, tell us that its rulers were proud of their sea trade.

Who they were. South of the Shunga lands, the Satavahanas, sometimes called Andhras, ruled large parts of the Deccan from the 2nd century BCE. Their empire covered much of present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra. They had different capitals at different times; the most famous were Amaravati and Pratishthana (Paithan). They may have fought the Shungas.

Farming. Agriculture flourished in the fertile Krishna-Godavari river system, giving the kingdom economic stability.

Trade. Satavahana coins have been found from Gujarat to Andhra Pradesh, India's western and eastern coasts. Many coins show ships, suggesting that sea trade was a key part of economic life and that shipbuilding and navigation were advanced. Trade networks reached as far as the Roman Empire.

Tolls and taxes on trade added to the kingdom's income.

Naneghat. The Naneghat caves near Pune lie close to a major trade route through the Western Ghats. They were used to collect tolls and taxes and as resting places for traders. Imagine caravans climbing from the coast with goods from Roman ships, pausing here to pay toll and rest.

Prosperity and culture. A strong economy and a fairly peaceful period helped literature, art and culture grow. Rock-cut Buddhist halls such as the Karla caves near Lonavala, with magnificent pillars and a stupa carved out of the solid hillside, were made with Satavahana support.

Decline. In the 3rd century CE the Satavahana empire broke up into smaller independent kingdoms. The main causes were weak central control and a gradual economic decline. Once again, regional powers rose to set up new kingdoms.

What if a king's name began with his mother's name? Among the Satavahanas, that is exactly what happened.

Mothers in royal names. Satavahana princes were often named after their mothers. Gautamiputra Satakarni means 'Satakarni, son of Gautami'. His mother, Queen Gautami Balashri, was powerful: she donated land to Buddhist monks and had an important inscription carved at Nashik, showing her influence. A coin of the dynasty carries a Brahmi inscription reading 'King Lord Satakarni, son of Gautami'. Using the mother's name suggests that mothers, and queens, held an honoured place in royal families.

A queen who performed Vedic rituals. Inscriptions in the Naneghat caves describe a widowed Satavahana queen who, remarkably, performed several Vedic rituals, including the ashvamedha. They mention Vedic gods such as Indra, Chandra and Surya, and list her generous dana (gifts): land, cows, horses, elephants and silver coins to priests, guests, workers, scholars and monks.

Early numerals. These Brahmi inscriptions include some numerals, symbols for numbers, some of which look a little like today's shapes. This is one of many pieces of evidence that modern numerals ultimately came from India.

Many beliefs, side by side. The Satavahanas were devoted to Vasudeva (another name for Krishna), but they supported other traditions too. Kings often gave tax-free farmland to Vedic scholars and to Jain and Buddhist monks so they could study and practise.

A goldsmith-sculptor. A stone figure of a yaksha (a minor nature deity) from the Pitalkhora caves in Maharashtra carries an inscription on its hand saying it was made by Kanhadasa, a goldsmith. So a goldsmith could also carve stone, a clue that people's skills and professions could be flexible.

Rock-cut wonders. At Karla, a great prayer hall for Buddhist monks, with rows of pillars and a stupa, was carved entirely out of a rocky hillside. Such work needed skilled artisans, patient planning and generous donors, including kings, queens, merchants and ordinary people.

Remember Kalinga, the land Ashoka conquered at such a terrible cost? A century or so later, it rose again as a proud and powerful kingdom.

Kalinga's comeback. After the Maurya empire declined, Kalinga (in present-day Odisha) became an important power under the kings of the Chedi dynasty.

Kharavela. The best-known Chedi ruler was Kharavela. He was a devoted follower of Jain teachings and was sometimes called bhikshu-raja, the 'monk-king'. Yet he respected all schools of thought.

The Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves. Near Bhubaneswar lie the famous Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves, probably made for Jain monks. They have finely carved panels and statues, including a scene from the Ramayana, and spacious rooms cut straight into the rock. They are notable examples of rock-cut architecture, in which buildings are carved out of natural rock rather than built up from bricks or blocks. The regular, precise chambers were shaped nearly two thousand years ago using tools like chisels and hammers.

The Hathigumpha inscription. One cave, the Hathigumpha ('elephant cave'), carries a long inscription in Brahmi script. It records Kharavela's achievements year by year: his military victories and his works for his people's welfare. In it Kharavela proudly says that he gathered a council of ascetics and sages from a hundred regions, and calls himself a respecter of every sect and repairer of every temple.

The Indian ethos. Like Ashoka before him and other rulers of this age, Kharavela took pride in protecting all schools of thought. This tolerance can be called a fundamental part of the 'Indian ethos', the shared values of Indian civilisation.

Pearls and the south. Kharavela also claims to have defeated an alliance of south Indian kings that threatened him, and to have received hundreds of pearls from the Pandya kingdom. Historians note that the location of that battle is unknown and he does not seem to have invaded the south.

Thinking about sources. A royal inscription tells the king's own side of the story. Historians value it greatly but also check it against other evidence, just as they do with Ashoka's edicts.

A woman holds up an anklet before a king and proves her husband was innocent. This scene from a famous Tamil epic opens a window onto the kingdoms of the south.

Three kingdoms. From about the 3rd or 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE, three powerful kingdoms dominated the south: the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas. They often competed, but together they boosted trade and culture. Ashoka's edicts mention them as lying beyond his empire, showing they stayed independent even at the height of Mauryan power.

The Sangam age. Many poets of this time produced works now called Sangam literature, the oldest literature of south India. 'Sangam' comes from the Sanskrit sangha, 'association' or 'coming together', here an assembly of poets. Its anthologies express love and values such as heroism and generosity, and historians use them to study society. They speak of three 'crowned kings'.

Karikala and the Grand Anicut. The Chola king Karikala is said to have defeated a combined force of the Cheras and Pandyas. He also built the Kallanai or Grand Anicut, a water-diversion system on the Kaveri just downstream of Srirangam island. It carried water to the central and southern Kaveri delta, bringing more land under rice, so the area became known as the 'rice bowl of the South'. Repaired many times, it still irrigates fields for millions of people in Tamil Nadu.

The Silappadikaram. This epic, composed soon after the Sangam collections, is 'The Tale of the Anklet'. Kannagi and her husband Kovalan live in the Chola city of Puhar. After losing his wealth, Kovalan goes with Kannagi to Madurai to start again and tries to sell one of her anklets. He is falsely accused of theft and executed by the Pandya king. Kannagi proves his innocence with her second anklet; the king dies of shock and Madurai is destroyed by fire. She is later honoured as a goddess in the Chera land, and is still worshipped in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The epic is about justice and a ruler's dharma to protect it, and it shows rich trading cities in all three kingdoms.

Welfare and tolerance. Pandya inscriptions record kings' concern for their subjects and support for all schools of thought.

Near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh stands a stone pillar put up by a Greek ambassador who praised an Indian god. How did a Greek come to honour Vasudeva-Krishna?

The Indo-Greeks. When Alexander retreated, he left satraps (governors) behind. Over time these rulers set up independent domains and became known as the Indo-Greeks. After the Mauryas declined, the northwest (roughly present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) was an easy target for them. They came as conquerors, but they were strongly influenced by the rich local culture. The result was a blend of Greek and Indian elements in government, art, language and daily life.

The Heliodorus pillar. This pillar near Vidisha is named after an Indo-Greek ambassador, Heliodorus. His inscription praises Vasudeva as the 'god of gods' and mentions three immortal precepts that lead to heaven: self-restraint, charity and consciousness (awareness). A Greek envoy honouring an Indian deity shows how deeply cultures were mixing.

Coins as evidence. Most of what we know about the Indo-Greek kings comes from their coins, found in excavations across north India. They were made of gold, silver, copper and nickel. Many show a king on one side and Greek deities on the other, but some show Indian deities such as Vasudeva-Krishna and Lakshmi. Putting Indian gods on coins may have been a way to win the trust of Indian subjects and show respect for local beliefs.

The Shakas. Indo-Greek rule ended with the arrival of the Shakas, also called Indo-Scythians, who ruled parts of the northwest from the later 2nd century BCE until the 5th century CE, rising after the Indo-Greeks and holding power until the Kushanas came.

The Shaka Samvat. The Shaka Samvat calendar developed during this period. It runs 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar (79 years behind from January to March). In 1957 it was adopted as the Indian National Calendar, and official Government of India publications often give dates in both calendars.

A coin with a king holding a spear on one side and the Buddha on the other, labelled in Greek letters; another coin with Shiva and the bull Nandi. These coins belong to one emperor, Kanishka, and they tell a story of cultures meeting.

The Kushanas. The Kushanas came from Central Asia and entered India probably in the 2nd century CE. At its peak their empire stretched from Central Asia over large parts of north India. Their most powerful ruler was probably Kanishka. A large headless statue of him, about 1.85 m tall, shows his long coat, boots and weapon; its Brahmi inscription calls him 'the great king, king of kings, son of God, Kanishka'.

Many gods on one coinage. Kanishka's coins show the Buddha (named in Greek letters) and Shiva with Nandi. A ruler showing several deities was signalling respect for the many beliefs of his subjects, much as modern currencies use symbols that matter to the whole nation.

The Silk Route. The Kushanas controlled important parts of the Silk Route, the network of trade routes linking China with the Mediterranean world through Central Asia and Persia. Trade grew, connecting India with the rest of Asia and the West.

Two schools of art. Continuing a trend from the Indo-Greeks, Kushana-era art is famous for two styles:

Deities like Surya began to be shown in more human-like forms, and religious art grew, laying the groundwork for later temple architecture. Gandhara, by the way, also appears in the Mahabharata: Queen Gandhari came from there.

Confluence, with Indian themes leading. Despite wars and power struggles, this age saw remarkable cultural exchange and assimilation. Styles mixed, but Indian themes, especially Hindu and Buddhist ones, dominated. Sanskrit literature flourished, and major texts such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana took shape in this period. A confluence is a meeting point, like two rivers joining. The age of reorganisation shows that culture grows through interaction and assimilation over time, not by one group simply replacing another.