Exploring Society II · Chapter 1 — The Story of Indian Farming

Think about your breakfast this morning. The roti or rice, the dal, the milk in your tea and the oil in the pan all began on a farm somewhere. Farming touches every one of us, every day, even if we live in a big city.

What agriculture includes. Farming, or agriculture, is one of the oldest jobs people have ever done. It is more than growing crops. It includes preparing the soil, raising plants, looking after animals and often growing trees as part of one farming system. Some farmers also keep fish (pisciculture) or rear silkworms for silk thread. In the widest sense, agriculture covers farming, animal husbandry (raising livestock), forestry and horticulture (growing fruits, vegetables and flowers).

Where the word comes from. 'Agriculture' comes from Latin: agri means field and culture means to cultivate. The Government of India groups farming with related work under the heading 'agriculture and allied activities'. This includes livestock, beekeeping (apiculture), fisheries, rearing silkworms and making silk yarn, and growing fibres such as cotton and hemp.

How important is farming? Some numbers (2022-23).

Gross domestic product (GDP) means the total value of all goods and services a country produces in a year. So farming produces under one-fifth of the value, but gives work to almost half of all working people. Many families have farmed the same land for generations.

Who is a farmer? When we hear 'farmer', many of us picture a man with a plough. In fact, in rural India women do most farm work, from sowing to harvesting and threshing (separating grain from the straw or husk).

A land of many farms. India's farms range from wheat fields in Punjab and saffron fields in Kashmir to tea gardens in the Northeast and the Nilgiris and paddy fields in Kerala. What grows in a place depends on its soil, climate, water and land shape. This chapter looks at each of these factors.

Imagine an archaeologist brushing soil off a few burnt grains of rice. Those tiny grains can tell us that people were eating rice thousands of years ago. This is how we learn the long story of Indian farming.

The earliest evidence. Grains of rice found in the Ganga Plain go back as far as the 7th or 8th millennium BCE (a millennium is 1,000 years). Some experts point out that finding grains does not prove people were already growing rice in a planned way; that may have taken a few more thousand years. At Mehrgarh in Baluchistan, a site older than the Sindhu-Sarasvatī (Harappan) civilisation, barley and millets were being grown in the 7th millennium BCE.

Harappan farmers. For the Harappans, barley and wheat were the main (staple) crops. Some Harappan sites also show rice in the 3rd millennium BCE, along with millets and vegetables. Over time farmers learned to grow:

• oilseeds such as sesame, mustard, linseed, safflower and castor;
• pulses and legumes such as green gram, black gram and fenugreek;
• fibre crops such as cotton, hemp and jute;
• fruits such as mango, jackfruit, grapes, dates, jujube, mulberry and black plum.

Clever methods. At Kalibangan in Rajasthan, a field from around 2800 BCE shows furrows running across each other at right angles. This points to intercropping, growing two or more crops in the same field at the same time. Farmers there were still doing the same thing in the 1960s, nearly 4,800 years later! People also tamed animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, asses, dogs, pigs and fowl from the early phase of this civilisation (c. 3500 BCE).

What old books tell us. The Vedas mention yava (barley), godhūma (wheat) and vrīhi (rice). Later texts, such as Kauṭilya's Arthaśhāstra, Tamil Sangam poems, the Amarakoṣha, the Kṛiṣhiparāśhara, Varāhamihira's Bṛihatsamhitā and Surapāla's Vṛikṣhāyurveda, discuss crops, soils, seeds, watering and the care of animals. The Vṛikṣhāyurveda, for example, advises treating seeds with milk, cow dung and honey before sowing, and watering newly planted trees in dry land twice a day for fifteen days. The Bṛihatsamhitā describes a way of grafting (joining one plant to another so they grow as one) that is still used.

Why does a farmer in Kashmir grow saffron while a farmer in Kerala grows coconuts? The simple answer is climate. Long ago the Chinese traveller Xuanzang, who came to India in the 7th century, noticed that because climate and soil differ from place to place, plants and fruits differ too.

India's climates. In Part 1 you met seven types of climate in India:

Each area gets a different amount of sunshine and rain, has different temperatures through the year, and is touched differently by the monsoon.

Agroclimatic zones. India is divided into 15 agroclimatic zones. Each zone combines climate, soil, land shape and natural vegetation. This helps the government and other agencies plan what to grow, when and how. Examples are the Upper Gangetic Plain Region, the Southern Plateau and Hills Region and the Western Dry Region.

The two monsoons. The monsoon brings the rain that many crops need.

• The southwest monsoon brings rain from June to September. It is vital for the monsoon (kharif) crops of northern and central India.
• The northeast monsoon blows from October to December and brings rain to the east and south.
• Coastal plains such as Malabar (Kerala) and Coromandel (Tamil Nadu) get rain from both.

Why this matters. Rain from both monsoons lets farmers in the south grow crops in the months between. For north India, those months are dry, so farmers there depend on groundwater, rivers, canals, ponds and moisture left in the soil. Thanks to monsoon rain plus irrigation, states such as Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh grow rice all through the year.

If the monsoon fails for two years in a row, many foods become costly or scarce. That is why farmers and governments watch the monsoon forecast so closely.

Visit a village in Uttar Pradesh in July and the fields are green with rice and maize. Return in February and you see golden wheat and yellow mustard. Come again in May and you may find watermelons. The same land grows different crops in different seasons.

Three cropping seasons. Indian farming follows three main seasons. Farmers have kept this rhythm for centuries, and it is one reason food is available all through the year.

Where the names come from. The words kharif, rabi and zaid come from Arabic and have been used since Mughal times. Before that, Indian texts called the three groups kedāra (wet crops), haimana (winter crops) and graiṣhmika (summer crops).

Each season has its risks. Kharif crops depend on the monsoon arriving on time. If it comes late, sowing is delayed; if it rains too much, standing crops can be destroyed. Such losses cause great hardship for farming families.

An old piece of advice. The Arthaśhāstra says a good rainy season is one in which one-third of the year's rain falls at the beginning and the end of the season, and two-thirds in the middle months. Think about why: young plants need some rain to start, growing plants need the most water, and ripening crops need drier weather for harvest.

Using the seasons. By moving from kharif to rabi to zaid, a farmer can use one field for several harvests in a year, and the market gets a steady flow of grain, oilseeds and fruit.

Pick up a handful of soil. It may look like plain dirt, but it took hundreds or even thousands of years to form, and it is full of life.

How soil forms. Soil is the thin top layer of the Earth's crust that supports plant life. It forms as rock slowly breaks down (weathering) and as dead plants and animals decay. Step by step:

• the bedrock (the original rock) begins to crack and break;
• small mineral pieces mix with decaying organic matter;
• layers form, with a dark, rich humus layer near the top;
• a fully developed soil can support thick vegetation.

This can take from a century to several thousand years. Humus is the dark organic matter that forms when plant and animal remains decay; it is rich in nutrients and holds moisture.

Six major soil types. Ancient texts like the Amarakoṣha described twelve kinds of farmland by fertility. Today India's soils are grouped into six major types:

Looking after soil. Healthy soil is full of bacteria, fungi, earthworms and insects that break down organic matter. Farmers protect it through soil conservation. Traditional methods include crop rotation (different crops in different seasons so the soil does not lose particular nutrients), multiple cropping (several crops in one field, which lowers pest risk and ensures at least one harvest), contour ploughing along the curves of a slope to stop rain washing soil away, and cow-dung manure. Panchagavya, a fermented mix of five cow products, acts as a biofertiliser. Modern methods include terracing on hills, planting trees, mulching and applying fertilisers very precisely.

No water, no crops. Two farmers may own similar land, but the one with a reliable source of water can often grow two or three crops a year, while the other waits anxiously for rain.

Rain-fed agriculture. This depends entirely on rainfall. It is common where the monsoon brings enough rain, but farmers face droughts and an unpredictable monsoon. They cope by choosing drought-resistant crops and by harvesting rainwater in traditional ways.

Irrigated agriculture. Irrigation means supplying water to crops by artificial means. It raises yields and reduces dependence on the monsoon.

A long history. Indians have built water structures since the Indus civilisation, and every region has its own words for them, such as kund, ahar, pokhar, khadin, eri and taḍāgam. Many city lakes are artificial; the Munsar Lake at Viramgam in Gujarat was built by Queen Minaldevi of the Chaulukya dynasty in the 11th century CE. In Part 1 you met the Kallanai, the grand anicut built by Karikāla across the Kaveri about 1,800 years ago, which still irrigates thousands of hectares.

Traditional systems still in use.

• Phad systems in Maharashtra: community-run small canals divert river water to fields.
• Bamboo drip irrigation in northeastern India: bamboo pipes carry spring water to the fields.
• Small farm ponds collect rainwater and keep the soil moist for longer.

Modern methods.

• Drip (trickle) irrigation: tubes with tiny holes drip water slowly onto the roots, so very little is wasted.
• Sprinkler irrigation: water is sprayed into the air and falls on crops like rain.

Why saving water matters. In many parts of India groundwater is falling fast. Efficient irrigation lets farming continue in low-rainfall areas, raises yields and keeps the food supply steady. But careless pumping can empty the very wells that farmers depend on.

In many villages a grandmother keeps a small pot of her best seeds, saved from last year's harvest. In some areas a bride even carries seeds as part of the gifts she takes to her new home. Seeds are a family's treasure.

Saved and shared seeds. For generations farmers picked seeds from their best plants, stored them carefully and shared them within the community. The Arthaśhāstra gives instructions for preparing seeds: cotton seeds smeared with cow dung, cereals and pulses soaked in dew and dried in the sun, and cut sugarcane coated with honey and ghee. Today the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed ways to use beejamrit, a paste of cow dung, cow urine and other materials, to coat seeds; it protects them and helps them sprout sooner.

The Indian seed drill. Ancient Indian farmers invented a seed drill that prepared the soil, dropped the seed and closed the furrow in a single pass, turning three jobs into one.

Company seeds. Many farmers now buy seeds developed scientifically to give higher yields and resist pests. But the seeds from these plants are often unsuitable for the next season, so farmers must buy again each year. Critics say this makes farmers dependent on seed companies.

Traditional farming systems. Traditional farming treats the plant and the whole soil ecosystem as one system. Soil organisms turn nutrients into forms plants can absorb, and plants feed these organisms through their roots. Such farming is usually small-scale, follows the cycle of seasons (ṛitu chakra) and involves the family and domestic animals. Examples:

• Terrace farming: steps cut into hillsides, as in Uttarakhand, to make flat fields, stop erosion and save water.
• Kulāgar: from Konkani kula (family) and āgar (storehouse); a homestead garden in the Konkan (Goa) with food crops, fruits, spices and medicinal plants around the house, with planned irrigation.
• Gokṛiṣhi: cows provide manure as fertiliser and bullocks pull the plough.

Does science agree? ICAR has documented almost 5,000 traditional practices and tested over a hundred of them. More than 85 per cent of those tested were found valid by modern science and can help reduce chemicals and improve soil health.

In the 1960s India worried about feeding its people and had to import grain. Within a few years wheat harvests jumped. How did that happen, and what did it cost?

The Green Revolution. In the 1960s and 1970s a major change called the Green Revolution brought:

• high-yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds;
• more irrigation;
• chemical fertilisers and pesticides;
• machines such as tractors and harvesters.

Production of food grains, especially wheat and rice, rose greatly and India became self-sufficient in food. M.S. Swaminathan, honoured with the Bharat Ratna, is called the architect of the Green Revolution.

The hidden costs. Over the following decades problems appeared: soils became poorer, groundwater was used up, pesticides and fertilisers polluted soil and water, and human and animal health suffered, including a rise in cancer cases in some rural areas according to scientific studies. Chemicals also harm bees, which are needed for pollination. Many scientists now ask whether this kind of farming can last.

A trade-off. Modern methods produce a lot of food quickly. Traditional methods work with nature and are more resilient, but may give lower yields. The challenge is to balance the two.

Sustainable pathways. Sustainable agriculture combines modern productivity with traditional wisdom, inspired by Indian Knowledge Systems. Examples:

• Organic farming: no chemical fertilisers or pesticides; instead compost, seed cake (what is left after oil is pressed from seeds) and animal manure.
• Neem-based pesticides, which are natural and far less harmful.
• Sikkim, the world's first fully organic state, banned chemical fertilisers and pesticides in 2014.
• Hydroponics: plants grown in nutrient-rich water instead of soil, useful in cities and on poor soils.

World heritage farms. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) recognises three globally important agricultural heritage systems in India: saffron farming in Kashmir, Odisha's traditional farming linked with forest management, and Kerala's below-sea-level farming that combines crops and fishing.

Imagine you are a farmer whose crop has just been flattened by an untimely hailstorm. Who helps you, and how will you repay the loan you took for seeds? These are real questions for millions of families.

What the government does. In many states the government helps farmers get seeds, fertilisers and pesticides, weather forecasts, research and training. It supplies electricity for irrigation at lower prices to cut costs. Through crop insurance such as the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana, farmers can be compensated for crop loss. The government also buys important crops from farmers so they can sell their produce at fair prices. Cold storages and digital access to market information help farmers get better prices.

Challenge 1: small landholdings. A landholding is the area of land a person owns. As land is divided among family members over generations, plots get smaller. The average landholding in India is about three-fourths of a hectare, roughly the size of a football field. (1 hectare = 10,000 square metres; the older unit, the acre, is about 4,047 square metres.) Small farms earn little, and big machines are costly to buy or rent for them, though machines for small farms are now being made.

Diversity builds resilience. Farming families have long earned extra from cows, goats, poultry, bees, fish, forest produce and trees on field bunds. Today even this is often not enough for a decent life.

Challenge 2: climate change. Weather is becoming less predictable, with untimely rain and more frequent droughts and floods. Crop losses become more likely as the planet warms.

Challenge 3: the stressed Ganga. The Ganga basin, with its rich alluvial soil, feeds and waters over 500 million people. But melting glaciers, water diverted for irrigation, heavy pumping of groundwater and hundreds of dams have put the river under stress; parts are too shallow for boats in summer.

Challenge 4: debt. Hardship pushes farmers to borrow, and some fall into a debt trap. By some estimates as many as 2,300 farmers leave farming every day. New, sustainable approaches offer hope that agriculture can flourish everywhere.