Chapter 18 — Arts of the People, With the People, For the People

Art has been part of human life since prehistoric times. The cave paintings of Bhimbetka, the beads of Harappa and the pots of every Indian village carry the voice and touch of people who lived long ago. When you hold an old brass lota used by your great-grandparents, you are holding something shaped by human hands and human choices - a connection across time.

Art also changes with life. New materials, tools and technology change how things are made: the potter's wheel, the loom, the printing press, plastic, the computer. Changes in social values, ideas and behaviour change what people want to make and say. A rakhi made of silk thread and one made of recycled paper both express the same bond, but in different times.

Look around and you will see that art is woven into everyday life. The clothes we wear, the plate we eat from, the mat we sit on and the broom that sweeps the courtyard were all designed by someone. Many of these things come from craft traditions kept alive by families and communities for generations:

• Basketry in bamboo, cane, palm leaf and jute in the Northeast, Kerala, Odisha and Bengal.
• Handloom weaving of saris, shawls and dhurries in almost every state.
• Embroidery and quilting, such as kantha in Bengal and phulkari in Punjab.
• Paper and clay crafts, such as papier-mache in Kashmir and terracotta in Bankura.

These objects are made by the people - often by people who are not called 'artists' in the textbook sense. They are made with the people - families and neighbours work together, sharing skills. And they are made for the people - for everyday use, festivals and gifts.

Learning these techniques yourself is the best way to appreciate the hard work, patience and dedication of the artisans who keep them alive. A basket that looks simple may take a skilled maker a full day.

Try this: list ten handmade objects in your home. For each, write the material, the technique if you know it, and who might have made it. Ask an elder about one object and its story. Judge your list: Did you notice things you had never thought of as art before?

Nature is full of networks that connect living things. Under the ground, roots hold soil together, drink water and feed plants, even though we rarely see them. Some trees, like the banyan, even send roots down from their branches above the ground, which become new pillars of the tree.

In the hills of Meghalaya, one of the wettest regions on Earth, the Khasi and Jaintia communities have turned this natural habit into a remarkable kind of architecture. The Indian rubber tree, a type of fig (Ficus elastica), grows strong secondary roots above the ground. Villagers gently guide these young roots across a stream or river, often along a temporary frame of bamboo or the hollowed trunk of an areca palm. Over the years, the roots are twisted onto one another and tied at different places for support. Where roots touch, they slowly fuse together. Stones are placed in the gaps to make a walking surface.

A living root bridge takes many years to become strong enough to cross - often well over a decade - and it keeps growing for a long time afterwards. Unlike a wooden bridge, which rots in the heavy rain, a living bridge gets stronger with age. Some are believed to be centuries old. Near the village of Nongriat there is even a famous double-decker root bridge, one bridge above another.

What does a bridge have to do with art? Several things:

• It uses the same techniques as fibre craft - twisting, knotting and weaving - only with living roots instead of thread.
• It is made by the community, often across generations: those who start a bridge may not live to use it fully, but their grandchildren will.
• It is made with nature, not against it - a model of sustainable design.

Many everyday objects across India use these same techniques with natural fibres - jute baskets, coir mats, cane chairs, palm-leaf fans and the rope-woven charpoy.

Try this: collect ropes or strings of cotton, jute, coir or any natural fibre available in your area. Twist two strands together tightly and see how much stronger the twisted cord is than a single strand. Then make a small artwork - perhaps a miniature bridge or a coaster - by twisting and tying. Judge your work: Is the twist even? Are the ties firm?

A single thread is weak, but threads worked together become ropes, baskets, fabrics and even bridges. Across India, artisans use five main techniques to turn fibre into useful and beautiful objects.

• Twisting - two or more strands are twisted around each other to make a stronger cord or rope. Rope-makers twist coir from coconut husk in Kerala and jute in Bengal. The thread of a sacred janeu and the cord of a kite string are also twisted.
• Knotting - strands are tied in patterns of knots. Fishing nets, the decorative tassels on a charpoy, and macrame plant hangers are knotted. Knotting needs no tools, only fingers.
• Crocheting - a single continuous thread is pulled through loops using a small hook. Doilies, lace borders and small bags are often crocheted. A mistake can be undone by pulling the thread back.
• Knitting - rows of loops are made with two needles, each row pulled through the one before. Sweaters, socks and caps knitted by grandmothers in winter are the most familiar example.
• Weaving - two sets of threads cross at right angles. The warp threads are stretched lengthwise on a loom; the weft thread passes over and under them from side to side. Saris, dhurries, mats and many baskets are woven. A charpoy is woven by hand with rope over a wooden frame.

Each technique suits certain materials and purposes. Twisting gives strength along a line; knotting gives open, decorative mesh; crochet and knitting give stretchy fabric; weaving gives firm, flat surfaces.

Natural fibres are part of India's heritage: cotton, jute, coir, hemp, silk, wool, bamboo and cane, sabai grass in Odisha and Jharkhand, water hyacinth in Assam, and palm leaf in the south. Many are biodegradable and renewable, which makes fibre crafts a sustainable choice compared with plastic.

How to practise: make a small paper-strip weaving. Cut parallel slits in a piece of chart paper, leaving a border uncut - these are your warp. Weave coloured paper strips over and under across the slits - this is your weft. Alternate the starting point in each row. Check yourself: Does each row begin opposite to the one before? Are the strips pushed close together without gaps?

Knotting is one of the easiest fibre arts to begin with, because it needs only cord and your fingers. Decorative knotting, often called macrame, is used for wall hangings, plant holders, torans and bags. You can begin with a friendship band, wrist band or rakhi - and you might send one to our soldiers to show appreciation.

Materials: cotton or jute cord or thick embroidery thread, scissors, a safety pin or tape to hold the work, and optional beads. You can use three colours, such as saffron, white and green, to make a tricolour band.

The basic square knot band (four cords):

• Set up. Cut four cords about 80 cm long. Tie them together with an overhand knot about 8 cm from the top, leaving tails to tie the band later. Pin the knot to a cushion or tape it to a table.
• Arrange. The two middle cords are the filler cords; they stay straight. The two outer cords are the working cords.
• First half. Bring the left cord over the fillers and under the right cord. Take the right cord under the fillers and up through the loop on the left. Pull both ends gently.
• Second half. Do the mirror image: right cord over the fillers and under the left cord; left cord under the fillers and up through the loop on the right. Pull. These two halves make one square knot.
• Repeat. Keep making square knots, pushing each up against the last. Thread a bead onto the fillers between knots if you like.
• Finish. When the band fits your wrist, tie all four cords in an overhand knot and trim the ends.

If you repeat only the first half again and again, the band twists into a spiral - a pretty variation.

Group project: knotting can grow into larger pieces. Working in groups, hang many cords from a stick, make rows of square knots, and then join neighbouring cords in alternating rows to make a net-like pattern. This can become a wall hanging or a toran for the classroom door.

Knots can be confusing. Look around, help one another, and do not pull too hard - even tension gives neat knots.

How to judge your work: are the knots the same size? Do they lie flat rather than twisting (unless you made a spiral on purpose)? Are the ends finished firmly so the band will not come undone?

What happens to the clothes you no longer wear? In many Indian homes, they do not go to waste. Fabric has a long life, and old saris, dhotis and shirts are reborn as quilts, cushion covers and bags.

Patchwork is a technique, used in many parts of the world, in which small pieces of fabric are joined and sewn together to make a larger piece. Quilting is the stitching together of layers of cloth, usually with many lines of running stitch, to make a thick, warm textile. Patchwork pieces are made into blankets, baby cradles, bags, cushion covers, table mats and dhurries. In many parts of India, women bring fragments of old fabric that each has collected and quilt them together, often while sharing stories and songs.

India has several famous traditions:

• Kantha (West Bengal and Bangladesh, also Odisha) - layers of old saris stitched together with rows of running stitch, often embroidered with flowers, fish, birds and scenes from daily life.
• Sujani (Bihar) - quilted cloth stitched with running stitch, with embroidered pictures that often tell stories about women's lives and social issues.
• Ralli (Sindh, Kutch in Gujarat, and western Rajasthan) - bright appliqued and patchwork quilts made with geometric designs in strong colours.
• Godhadi (Maharashtra and Karnataka) - simple, warm quilts made from layers of old fabric.
• Kawandi (made by the Siddi community of Karnataka) - colourful quilts in which patches are added from the edges inward.

Some quilt artists go further and create elaborate pictures and visual stories with patches, almost like paintings in cloth.

A patchwork quilt is also a powerful symbol of shared memory. Each piece comes from someone's life - a wedding sari, a child's frock, a father's shirt. Think of society as a patchwork quilt: every person is a patch that plays an equally important role in the overall picture. One person's action can change the look of the whole quilt.

Try this: ask at home whether anyone has a quilt made from old clothes. Find out which garments it came from and who made it. Sketch a part of it and describe its colours, shapes and stitches. Judge your sketch: Have you shown how the patches are arranged - in rows, from the centre, or freely?

Now make your own small patchwork. Work in small groups, so that each member contributes fabric and stitching - a quilt made with the people.

Materials: old cotton fabric pieces, a base cloth, scissors, sewing needles, cotton thread in a few colours, pins, a ruler and chalk or pencil.

Steps:

• Step 1 - collect. Gather old fabric no longer in use from your homes. Ask in school too; the tailoring room or lost-and-found may have scraps. Cotton is easiest to sew.
• Step 2 - base. Find a large piece, at least 30 cm x 30 cm, to use as your base.
• Step 3 - cut. Cut the other pieces into squares or rectangles of about 5-6 cm. Use a ruler and chalk so the edges are straight.
• Step 4 - plan the pattern. Spread the base fabric and arrange the small pieces on it in a pattern you find visually interesting: a checkerboard, stripes, a diamond, or light pieces in the centre and dark ones at the edges. Use what you learnt about rhythm, balance and emphasis.
• Step 5 - join. Place two neighbouring pieces face to face and sew along one edge on the reverse side, about half a centimetre from the edge. When you open them out, the stitches are hidden. Join the pieces into rows, then join the rows.
• Step 6 - quilt. Place the joined patchwork on the base cloth and sew through both layers with many lines of running stitch. These lines can follow the patches or make their own patterns, and coloured thread adds decoration.
• Step 7 - finish. Close the edges by folding them in and stitching, or by binding them with a strip of cloth.

The running stitch: bring the needle up through the cloth, go down a short distance ahead, come up again the same distance ahead, and repeat, keeping stitches and gaps even - about 3-5 mm each. Tie a knot at the start and finish.

Safety: handle scissors and needles carefully; pass scissors handle first; never leave needles lying around. Keep them in a sponge, a pincushion or a dedicated piece of thick cloth so they are not lost and cannot hurt anyone. Count needles at the start and end of the session.

How to judge your work: are your stitches even in length? Do the patches meet neatly at the corners? Does the pattern show a clear plan? Is the back tidy, with knots secure?

Thousands of newspapers are printed every day and thrown away after reading. Some are reused as packing material or made into bags. But soft paper such as newspaper and tissue, when mixed with water and glue, can become surprisingly strong. This is the basis of papier-mache (a French term meaning 'chewed paper').

Papier-mache is a technique in which a mixture of paper, water and glue is moulded into a three-dimensional form. When it dries, it becomes hard and light. The forms are inspired by the artist's environment and culture, and are then painted with pigments available in the region.

Kashmir is the most famous centre of papier-mache in India. The craft is believed to have come from Persia and Central Asia several centuries ago and flourished in the Kashmir Valley. Kashmiri artisans make boxes, vases, bowls, trays and Christmas ornaments. The work has two main stages:

• Sakhta - making the form from paper pulp or layers of paper over a mould.
• Naqashi - painting the surface with fine brushes, often with motifs of the chinar leaf, flowers, birds and vines, and finishing with lacquer. Gold and rich colours are common.

Papier-mache is widely practised in other parts of India too, with different shapes and motifs: colourful masks and toys in Odisha, decorative figures in Rajasthan, puppets and festival masks in West Bengal, toys in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, and large figures for festivals in many places. Even though the base material is the same, the motifs and patterns vary from region to region.

How did such practices travel? Through trade routes, the movement of artisans, royal patronage, pilgrims and fairs, and today through exhibitions, craft bazaars and the internet. An idea learned in one place is adapted to the local materials, beliefs and tastes of another.

Papier-mache also connects with science. Water loosens the fibres in paper; the glue coats and binds them; as the water evaporates, the fibres lock together into a hard shell. Watching the consistency of the pulp at each stage is careful observation of a change in material properties.

Think about it: compare a Kashmiri box with a papier-mache mask from Odisha. List two similarities and two differences in shape, colour and motif.

Now make a small form yourself. Work in small groups, sharing the pulp and taking turns.

Materials: old newspapers, a large tub or bucket, water, a mortar and pestle or a strong spoon, glue (a white craft glue, or flour paste made by cooking flour and water), a small bowl or other shallow object as a mould, petroleum jelly or thick oil, fine sandpaper, and paints and brushes.

Steps:

• Step 1 - soak. Cut or tear old newspapers into small pieces or thin strips and soak them in water in a large tub for a few days. The paper softens and begins to break down.
• Step 2 - squeeze. Take out the soaked paper and squeeze out the excess water with your hands.
• Step 3 - pulp. Crush, mash or grind the paper into a pulp. A mortar and pestle works well; you can also knead it in a bowl. The pulp should feel like soft dough with no large pieces left.
• Step 4 - mix. Add a little glue and mix well. Too little glue and the form will crumble; too much and it stays sticky and takes long to dry.
• Step 5 - prepare the mould. Turn a small bowl upside down and coat its outer surface with petroleum jelly or thick oil, so the papier-mache will not stick.
• Step 6 - cover. First lay thin strips of damp newspaper over the mould, overlapping them evenly until the surface is covered. Then press the pulp over the whole surface, thickly and evenly - about half a centimetre. Smooth it with damp fingers. Let it dry completely for a few days in a warm, airy place.
• Step 7 - release. When completely dry and hard, turn it over and gently twist and pull to release the mould.
• Step 8 - finish. Smooth the edges and surface with fine sandpaper. Paint a base coat, then add colour and decorations. You might use a motif from your region - a mango, a lotus, a peacock, a local festival symbol.

Observe the material: at each stage, note how the paper changes - stiff and dry, then soft and wet, then dough-like with glue, then hard and light. This is a science observation as much as an art one.

Care and hygiene: wash hands after handling pulp; do not leave soaked paper too long in hot weather, as it may smell; and clean tools at once.

How to judge your work: is the wall even in thickness, without thin spots? Is the rim smooth? Is the painting neat, and does the motif suit the form?

The three activities in this chapter - knotting, patchwork and papier-mache - share some important ideas that go beyond technique.

1. Sustainability. Each one uses materials that are natural, reused or would otherwise be thrown away: natural fibres, old clothes and waste paper. Traditional Indian crafts have long followed the habit of reduce, reuse and recycle - a torn sari becomes a kantha, a used sack becomes a bag, broken bangles become a mosaic. In a world struggling with plastic waste and fast fashion, these practices are not old-fashioned; they are wise. When you make art, ask: Can I use something already available? Will my artwork harm the environment when it is thrown away?

2. Making together. Many people's arts are made collectively. Women quilt together, weaving families share tasks, and villages build root bridges across generations. Working in groups teaches you to share materials, divide tasks fairly, help someone whose knot is going wrong, accept suggestions and take pride in a shared result. A group quilt or toran belongs to everyone who made it.

3. Respect for artisans. When you have struggled with a single square knot or a crooked running stitch, you begin to understand the skill of a weaver who works for months on one shawl, or a Kashmiri naqash who paints a box with a single-hair brush. Many such artisans earn very little and some traditions are disappearing because young people leave them. You can help by:

• Buying handmade goods directly from artisans at haats, melas and craft fairs.
• Learning the names of crafts and makers from your region.
• Telling others about them, which you will do in the next chapter's awareness campaign.

4. Art and identity. These crafts carry the stories, symbols and colours of their communities. A ralli quilt from Kutch, a sabai grass basket from Odisha and a papier-mache box from Srinagar each say something about where they come from.

Reflect and assess yourself: write a short note answering these questions. Which technique did you enjoy most and why? What was hardest? How did your group divide the work? Which local artisan or craft from your region would you like to learn more about? This reflection is part of your learning, not an extra.