Overview
Towns, Traders and Craftspersons looks at medieval India from its towns rather than its kingdoms. It begins by distinguishing the kinds of towns that existed. There were administrative centres, such as Thanjavur, the capital of the Cholas, where the perennial Kaveri flowed nearby, the Rajarajeshvara temple built by King Rajaraja Chola stood at the centre, and the sthapatis or sculptors made exquisite bronze idols and tall ornamental bell metal lamps. There were temple towns, which show one of the most important ways in which towns developed, because temples were often central to the economy: rulers endowed them with grants of land and money, pilgrims made donations, and the temple authorities used this wealth to finance trade and banking, so that a large number of priests, workers, artisans and traders settled nearby. Bhillasvamin, Somnath, Kanchipuram, Madurai, Tirupati, Vrindavan and Ajmer are the examples given. Then there were the small towns that grew from large villages, with a mandapika where villagers brought produce to sell, a hatta or market street, and often the fortified palace of a samanta or zamindar. From towns the chapter turns to traders - the Manigramam and Nanadesi guilds of south India, the Chettiars, the Marwari Oswals, and the Gujarati traders including Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras - and to craftspersons such as the bidri workers of Bidar, the Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, and the Saliyar or Kaikkolar weavers. It closes with three towns examined closely: Hampi, Masulipatnam and Surat, and with the new port cities the European companies created.
Learning Objectives
- Identify the different kinds of towns that existed in medieval India.
- Describe Thanjavur as an administrative centre and name the crafts practised there.
- Explain how temples helped towns to grow and why they became centres of the economy.
- Name the important temple towns and pilgrimage centres of medieval India.
- Explain how small towns grew out of large villages, and define mandapika and hatta.
- Describe the trading guilds of south India and the important trading communities of India.
- Explain what goods were traded and along which routes.
- Describe the craft of bidri and the work of the Panchalas or Vishwakarma community.
- Describe the weavers of south India and their relationship with temples.
- Describe Hampi, its architecture and its decline.
- Describe Masulipatnam and Surat and explain why they were important.
- Explain how the European companies created new port cities and what happened to the old ones.
Topics in this chapter
6 topics · tap a topic title to jump straight to it.
Administrative Centres: Thanjavur
A capital of the Cholas
Let us look at Thanjavur, the capital of the Cholas. The perennial river Kaveri flows near this beautiful town. It is here that the king holds court in his palace, offering audience to his subordinates, issuing orders to his officers, and receiving envoys from other lands.
The temple at the centre
The temple of Rajarajeshvara was built by King Rajaraja Chola. It was designed by his architect Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan who proudly carved his name on the temple wall.
Notice that detail. An architect signing his own name on a royal temple tells us something about the standing of skilled craftspeople in this society.
The crafts and the market
Besides the temple there are palaces with mandapas or pavilions. Kings hold court in these mandapas, issuing orders to their subordinates. There are barracks for the army.
The town is bustling with markets selling grain, spices, cloth and jewellery.
- Water supply for the town comes from wells and tanks.
- For the Saliya weavers of Thanjavur and the nearby town of Uraiyur, producing cloth for flags to be used in the temple festival, fine cottons for the king and nobility and coarse cotton for the masses, is a sacred duty.
- Not far from the temple was Svamimalai, where the sthapatis or sculptors made exquisite bronze idols and tall, ornamental bell metal lamps.
Many crafts persons of south Indian towns developed a sense of solidarity and organised themselves into guilds, which negotiated with the rulers and settled disputes among members.
- Thanjavur stood on the perennial Kaveri; the Rajarajeshvara temple was built by Rajaraja Chola.
- The architect Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan carved his own name on the temple wall.
- Saliya weavers made temple flag cloth, fine cottons for the nobility and coarse cotton for the masses; sthapatis at Svamimalai cast bronze idols and bell metal lamps.
Temple Towns and Pilgrimage Centres
How temples made towns
Thanjavur is also an example of a temple town. Temple towns represent a very important pattern of urbanisation, the process by which cities develop.
Temples were often central to the economy and society. Rulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion to various deities. They also endowed temples with grants of land and money to carry out elaborate rituals, feed pilgrims and priests and celebrate festivals.
Pilgrims who flocked to the temples also made donations.
Temple authorities used their wealth to finance trade and banking. Gradually a large number of priests, workers, artisans, traders, etc. settled near the temple to cater to its needs and those of the pilgrims. Thus grew temple towns.
Follow the chain carefully, because it is the answer to a common examination question: land and money grants make the temple wealthy; wealth funds trade and banking; trade and banking attract settlers; the settlement becomes a town.
The examples
- Bhillasvamin (Bhilsa or Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh.
- Somnath in Gujarat.
- Kanchipuram and Madurai in Tamil Nadu.
- Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh.
- Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh.
Other pilgrimage centres
Towns emerged around temples such as those of Bhillasvamin and Somnath. Other example of temple towns include Kanchipuram and Madurai, where commerce and trade also flourished.
Ajmer (Ajayameru) in Rajasthan was the capital of the Chauhan kings in the twelfth century and later became the suba headquarters under the Mughals. Ajmer provides an excellent example of religious coexistence. Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, a Sufi saint who settled there in the twelfth century, attracted devotees from all creeds. Nearby is the lake Pushkar which has attracted pilgrims from ancient times.
- Rulers endowed temples with land and money; pilgrims donated; the temple financed trade and banking, and a town grew around it.
- Temple towns: Bhillasvamin, Somnath, Kanchipuram, Madurai, Tirupati, Vrindavan.
- Ajmer shows religious coexistence - the dargah of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti and the ancient pilgrim lake of Pushkar nearby.
Small Towns: Mandapika and Hatta
From village to town
From the eighth century onwards the subcontinent was dotted with several small towns. These probably emerged from large villages. They usually had a mandapika (or mandi of later times) to which nearby villagers brought their produce to sell.
They also had market streets called hatta (haat of later times) lined with shops. Besides, there were streets for different kinds of artisans such as potters, oil pressers, sugar makers, toddy makers, smiths, stonemasons, etc.
Long distance trade
While some traders lived in the town, others travelled from town to town. Many of them were pedlars who went from village to village, carrying goods.
Usually a samanta or, in later times, a zamindar built a fortified palace in or near these towns. They levied taxes on traders, artisans and articles of trade and sometimes 'donated' the 'right' to collect these taxes to local temples, which had been built by themselves or by rich merchants.
What was taxed
These 'rights' were recorded in inscriptions that have survived to this day. The inscriptions tell us what was traded.
- Salt - a levy of one pala on each sack.
- Sugar and molasses.
- Threads and cloth.
- Betel leaves and areca nuts.
- Coconuts and spices.
These small towns were, in effect, the hinge between the village and the long-distance trading world: the mandapika gathered the village surplus, the hatta sold it, and the travelling trader carried it onwards.
- Mandapika became the mandi of later times; hatta became the haat.
- Artisan streets held potters, oil pressers, sugar makers, toddy makers, smiths and stonemasons.
- Samantas and zamindars built fortified palaces near such towns and taxed traders, artisans and goods.
Traders Big and Small
The dangers of the road
Traders had to pass through many kingdoms and forests. They usually travelled in caravans and formed guilds to protect their interests.
The south Indian guilds
There were several such guilds in south India from the eighth century onwards - the most famous being the Manigramam and Nanadesi. These traded extensively both within the peninsula and with Southeast Asia and China.
The great trading communities
- There were also communities like the Chettiars and the Marwari Oswal who went on to become the principal trading groups of the country.
- Gujarati traders, including the communities of Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras, traded extensively with the ports of the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, East Africa, Southeast Asia and China.
- They sold textiles and spices in these ports and, in exchange, brought gold and ivory from Africa; and spices, tin, Chinese blue pottery and silver from Southeast Asia and China.
The overland routes
The trading network was also international. Overland trade with Central Asia and beyond passed through Peshawar, Kabul, Kandahar and Multan.
Indian spices and cloth sold in the Red Sea ports were purchased by Italian traders and eventually reached European markets, fetching very high profits. Spices like pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, dried ginger grown in tropical climates became an important part of European cooking, and cotton cloth was very attractive.
This eventually drew European traders to India. Trade in horses with Arabia and Central Asia was another important activity, since Indian rulers needed war horses that the subcontinent could not breed well.
- Manigramam and Nanadesi were the famous south Indian guilds, trading within the peninsula and with Southeast Asia and China.
- Gujarati Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras sold textiles and spices and brought back gold and ivory from Africa, and tin, blue pottery and silver from the east.
- Overland trade with Central Asia passed through Peshawar, Kabul, Kandahar and Multan; horses were a major import.
Crafts in Towns
Bidri
The craftspersons of Bidar were so famed for their inlay work in copper and silver that it came to be called Bidri.
The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community
The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, consisting of goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters, were essential to the building of temples. They also looked after the complex irrigation works in south India.
Notice how wide that list is: the same community that carved the temple also maintained the tanks and channels that watered the fields. Their skills were the infrastructure of the region.
The weavers
Similarly, weavers such as the Saliyar or Kaikkolars emerged as prosperous communities, making donations to temples.
Some aspects of cloth making like cotton cleaning, spinning and dyeing became specialised and independent crafts.
Craft guilds
Crafts persons of south Indian towns developed a sense of solidarity and organised themselves into guilds. These guilds negotiated with the rulers on behalf of their members and settled disputes among them.
A donation to a temple by a weaver community was not only piety; it was a public statement of prosperity and standing. Temple inscriptions recording such gifts are one of the main ways historians know who these craftspeople were.
- Bidri is the inlay work in copper and silver for which the craftspersons of Bidar were famed.
- The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community - goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters - built temples and maintained irrigation works.
- Saliyar and Kaikkolar weavers became prosperous enough to make donations to temples, which is how we know of them.
A Closer Look: Hampi, Masulipatnam and Surat
Hampi
Hampi is located in the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin, which formed the nucleus of the Vijayanagara Empire, founded in 1336.
The magnificent ruins at Hampi reveal a well-fortified city. No mortar or cementing agent was used in the construction of these walls and the technique followed was to wedge them together by interlocking. The buildings in the royal complex had splendid arches, domes and pillared halls with niches for holding sculptures. They also had well-planned orchards and pleasure gardens with sculptural motifs such as the lotus and corbels.
Hampi was a bustling commercial and cultural centre in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The Moors (Muslim merchants), Chettis and agents of European traders such as the Portuguese, thronged the markets of Hampi. Temples were the hub of cultural activities and devadasis (temple dancers) performed before the deity, royalty and masses in the many-pillared halls in the Virupaksha (a form of Shiva) temple. The Mahanavami festival, known today as Navaratri in the south, was one of the most important festivals celebrated at Vijayanagara.
Hampi fell into ruin following the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by the Deccani Sultans - the rulers of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar and Bidar.
Masulipatnam
The town of Masulipatnam or Machlipatnam (literally, fish port town) lay on the delta of the Krishna river. In the seventeenth century it was a bustling centre of trade.
Both the Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to control Masulipatnam as it became the most important port on the Andhra coast.
The fort at Masulipatnam was built by the Dutch. The Qutb Shahi rulers of Golconda imposed royal monopolies on the sale of textiles, spices and other items to prevent the trade passing completely into the hands of the various East India Companies.
As the Mughals extended their power to Golconda, the Company traders, already engaged in a fierce competition, tried to secure a monopoly right to trade. Their conflicts led to the decline of Masulipatnam.
Surat
Surat in Gujarat was the emporium of western trade during the Mughal period along with Cambay (present-day Khambat) and later Ahmedabad. Surat was the gateway for trade with West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz.
Surat has also been called the gate to Mecca because many pilgrim ships set sail from here. The city was cosmopolitan and people of all castes and creeds lived there.
In the seventeenth century the Portuguese, Dutch and English had their factories and warehouses at Surat. According to the English chronicler Ovington who wrote an account of the port in 1689, on an average a hundred ships of different countries could be found anchored at the port at any given time.
There were also innumerable retail and wholesale shops selling cotton textiles. The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders (zari) and had a market in West Asia, Africa and Europe.
The state built numerous rest-houses to take care of the needs of people from all over the world who came to the city. There were magnificent buildings and innumerable pleasure parks. The Kathiawad seths or mahajans (money changers) had huge banking houses at Surat. It is noteworthy that the Surat hundis were honoured in the far-off markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra in Iraq and Antwerp in Belgium.
The decline of Surat
Surat began to decline towards the end of the seventeenth century because of many factors: the loss of markets and productivity because of the decline of the Mughal Empire, control of the sea routes by the Portuguese and competition from Bombay where the English East India Company shifted its headquarters in 1668.
New towns and traders
The Portuguese set up base in Goa in 1510, and by the seventeenth century the Dutch and English were also seeking to establish themselves. It was during this period that Madras, Calcutta and Bombay - the three biggest cities in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries - developed.
The English East India Company had set up a trading post at Madras, and Indian merchants such as Bhukanji and others left the older ports for these new towns. Crafts and commerce underwent major changes as merchants and artisans (such as weavers) were moved into the 'Black Towns' established by the European companies within these new cities. The 'blacks' or native traders and craftspersons were confined here while the 'white' rulers occupied the superior residencies of Fort St. George in Madras or Fort St. William in Calcutta.
- Hampi's walls used no mortar - the stones were wedged together by interlocking; it fell to the Deccani Sultans in 1565.
- Ovington recorded in 1689 that about a hundred ships of different countries were anchored at Surat at any given time.
- Surat hundis were honoured in Cairo, Basra and Antwerp; the English East India Company shifted headquarters to Bombay in 1668.
Key Concepts
- Administrative centre
- A town where the king held court, issued orders to officers and received envoys, such as Thanjavur, the Chola capital.
- Mandapa
- A pavilion in a palace or temple, in which kings held court and issued orders.
- Sthapati
- A sculptor; those at Svamimalai made exquisite bronze idols and tall ornamental bell metal lamps.
- Temple town
- A town that grew around a temple, because grants of land and money and pilgrim donations let the temple finance trade and banking and attract settlers.
- Mandapika
- The place in a small town where nearby villagers brought their produce to sell; the mandi of later times.
- Hatta
- A market street lined with shops in a small town; the haat of later times.
- Samanta
- A subordinate lord who, like the later zamindar, built a fortified palace near a town and levied taxes on traders, artisans and goods.
- Manigramam and Nanadesi
- The famous south Indian trading guilds from the eighth century, trading within the peninsula and with Southeast Asia and China.
- Chettiars and Marwari Oswal
- Trading communities that went on to become the principal trading groups of the country.
- Bidri
- The inlay work in copper and silver for which the craftspersons of Bidar were famed.
- Panchalas or Vishwakarma community
- Goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters, essential to temple building and to the irrigation works of south India.
- Saliyar or Kaikkolars
- Weaver communities of south India who became prosperous enough to make donations to temples.
- Guild
- An association of craftspersons or traders that negotiated with rulers on behalf of its members and settled disputes among them.
- Hampi
- The nucleus of the Vijayanagara Empire founded in 1336, whose fortification walls used no mortar but were wedged together by interlocking.
- Devadasi
- A temple dancer who performed before the deity, royalty and the masses in the many-pillared halls of the Virupaksha temple.
- Mahanavami
- One of the most important festivals celebrated at Vijayanagara, known today as Navaratri in the south.
- Masulipatnam
- Literally fish port town, on the Krishna delta; the most important port on the Andhra coast, contested by the Dutch and English Companies.
- Hundi
- A note recording a deposit made by a person, redeemable elsewhere; Surat hundis were honoured in Cairo, Basra and Antwerp.
- Gateway to Mecca
- The name given to Surat, because many pilgrim ships set sail from the port.
- Black Towns
- The quarters in Madras, Calcutta and Bombay into which native traders and craftspersons were moved, while European rulers occupied Fort St. George or Fort St. William.
Practice Questions
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Which of the following best describes a 'guild' in medieval India? (a) A group of soldiers fighting for a king (b) An organisation of craftsmen or traders that regulated production and trade (c) A type of tax collected by the king (d) A religious gathering at a temple मध्यकालीन भारत में 'श्रेणी' (गिल्ड) को सबसे अच्छी तरह से कैसे परिभाषित किया जा सकता है? (a) एक राजा के लिए लड़ने वाले सैनिकों का समूह (b) शिल्पकारों या व्यापारियों का एक संगठन जो उत्पादन और व्यापार को नियंत्रित करता था (c) राजा द्वारा एकत्र किया जाने वाला एक प्रकार का कर (d) मंदिर में धार्मिक सभा
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(b) An organisation of craftsmen or traders that regulated production and trade — Guilds (shrenis) set quality standards, trained apprentices, protected members' economic interests and sometimes provided credit and arbitration for disputes. / (b) शिल्पकारों या व्यापारियों का संगठन — श्रेणियाँ गुणवत्ता मानक निर्धारित करती थीं, प्रशिक्षु तैयार करती थीं, सदस्यों के आर्थिक हितों की रक्षा करती थीं और कभी-कभी ऋण और विवाद-समाधान की सुविधा भी देती थीं।
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A caravanserai (sarai) on a medieval trade route served the main purpose of: (a) collecting taxes from traders (b) providing lodging, storage and rest for travelling merchants and caravans (c) manufacturing goods for export (d) defending the kingdom from enemies मध्यकालीन व्यापार मार्ग पर एक सराय (कारवाँसराय) का मुख्य उद्देश्य था: (a) व्यापारियों से कर वसूलना (b) यात्रा करने वाले व्यापारियों और कारवाँ को आवास, भंडारण और आराम प्रदान करना (c) निर्यात के लिए वस्तुओं का निर्माण करना (d) शत्रुओं से राज्य की रक्षा करना
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(b) providing lodging, storage and rest for travelling merchants and caravans — Sarais were rest-houses built at regular intervals along roads; they supported long-distance trade by making travel safer and more practical. / (b) यात्रा करने वाले व्यापारियों और कारवाँ को आवास, भंडारण और आराम प्रदान करना — सराय सड़कों पर नियमित अंतराल पर बनाए गए विश्राम-गृह थे; इन्होंने यात्रा को सुरक्षित और व्यावहारिक बनाकर लंबी दूरी के व्यापार को सहयोग दिया।
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Specialised market lanes in medieval towns, where craftsmen of the same trade clustered together, helped because: (a) it made it easier to regulate and tax them (b) buyers could compare products and craftsmen could share tools and materials (c) it kept artisans away from the main bazaar (d) foreign merchants were not allowed elsewhere मध्यकालीन शहरों में विशेष बाजार गलियाँ, जहाँ एक ही व्यापार के शिल्पकार एकत्र रहते थे, इसलिए उपयोगी थीं क्योंकि: (a) उन्हें नियंत्रित करना और कर लगाना आसान था (b) खरीदार उत्पादों की तुलना कर सकते थे और शिल्पकार उपकरण और सामग्री साझा कर सकते थे (c) इससे कारीगर मुख्य बाजार से दूर रहते थे (d) विदेशी व्यापारियों को अन्यत्र अनुमति नहीं थी
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(b) buyers could compare products and craftsmen could share tools and materials — Market specialisation allowed efficient production and purchase; clustering also helped spread skills and reduced costs through shared resources, similar to modern industrial clusters. / (b) खरीदार उत्पादों की तुलना कर सकते थे और शिल्पकार उपकरण और सामग्री साझा कर सकते थे — बाजार विशेषज्ञता ने कुशल उत्पादन और खरीद को संभव बनाया; एक ही स्थान पर होने से कौशल का प्रसार हुआ और साझा संसाधनों से लागत कम हुई।
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In medieval Indian markets, a ________ (city police chief) maintained law and order in towns, regulated market practices, and supervised weights and measures. मध्यकालीन भारतीय बाजारों में, ________ (नगर पुलिस प्रमुख) शहरों में कानून-व्यवस्था बनाए रखता था, बाजार प्रथाओं को विनियमित करता था और नाप-तौल की निगरानी करता था।
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Kotwal (कोतवाल) — The Kotwal was the town's chief law-enforcement officer who also supervised markets, sanitation and the movement of goods, ensuring fair trade practices in urban areas. / कोतवाल — कोतवाल शहर का मुख्य कानून-प्रवर्तन अधिकारी होता था जो बाजार, सफाई और माल की आवाजाही की भी निगरानी करता था और शहरी क्षेत्रों में उचित व्यापार प्रथाओं को सुनिश्चित करता था।
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The demand for goods in medieval town markets increased during ________ because more people would buy specific items like clothes, sweets and decorations. मध्यकालीन शहरी बाजारों में वस्तुओं की माँग ________ के दौरान बढ़ जाती थी क्योंकि अधिक लोग कपड़े, मिठाई और सजावट जैसी विशिष्ट वस्तुएँ खरीदते थे।
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religious festivals / royal events (धार्मिक त्योहार / शाही आयोजन) — Festivals or royal ceremonies created demand spikes for specific goods; this shows how social life directly affected market activity and trade volumes in medieval towns. / धार्मिक त्योहार / शाही आयोजन — त्योहारों या शाही समारोहों से विशिष्ट वस्तुओं की माँग अचानक बढ़ जाती थी; यह दर्शाता है कि सामाजिक जीवन मध्यकालीन शहरों में बाजार गतिविधि और व्यापार की मात्रा को सीधे प्रभावित करता था।
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True or False: Inland caravan routes and sea routes both played a role in connecting medieval Indian towns to trade networks in Central Asia and West Asia. सत्य या असत्य: आंतरिक कारवाँ मार्ग और समुद्री मार्ग दोनों ने मध्यकालीन भारतीय शहरों को मध्य एशिया और पश्चिम एशिया के व्यापार नेटवर्क से जोड़ने में भूमिका निभाई।
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True (सत्य) — Overland routes connected Delhi and Punjab with Central Asia, while sea routes from western and southern ports (like Cambay and Calicut) linked India to West and Southeast Asia for trade in textiles, horses, spices and luxury goods. / सत्य — स्थलीय मार्ग दिल्ली और पंजाब को मध्य एशिया से जोड़ते थे, जबकि पश्चिमी और दक्षिणी बंदरगाहों (जैसे खंभात और कालीकट) से समुद्री मार्ग भारत को पश्चिम और दक्षिण-पूर्व एशिया से जोड़ते थे।
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What were two main goods that medieval Indian towns traded? Name one import and one export. मध्यकालीन भारतीय शहर किन दो मुख्य वस्तुओं का व्यापार करते थे? एक आयात और एक निर्यात का नाम लिखिए।
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Export: Textiles (cotton and silk cloth) — Indian weavers produced fine cloth that was in high demand in West Asia and Southeast Asia. Import: Horses — Indian rulers imported horses from Central Asia and Arabia for their cavalry forces, as good quality horses were not bred in sufficient numbers locally. / निर्यात: कपड़ा (सूती और रेशमी वस्त्र) — भारतीय बुनकर बेहतरीन कपड़ा बनाते थे जिसकी पश्चिम एशिया और दक्षिण-पूर्व एशिया में भारी माँग थी। आयात: घोड़े — भारतीय शासक अपनी घुड़सवार सेना के लिए मध्य एशिया और अरब से घोड़े आयात करते थे क्योंकि अच्छी नस्ल के घोड़े स्थानीय स्तर पर पर्याप्त संख्या में नहीं पाले जाते थे।
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Describe how urban occupations in a typical medieval Indian town were diverse. Name at least three different types of workers found there. एक विशिष्ट मध्यकालीन भारतीय शहर में शहरी व्यवसाय कैसे विविध थे? वहाँ पाए जाने वाले कम से कम तीन अलग-अलग प्रकार के कामगारों के नाम लिखिए।
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A medieval Indian town had a wide variety of occupations: (1) Craftsmen — weavers, metalworkers, carpenters who produced goods; (2) Traders and merchants — who bought, sold and transported goods locally and long-distance; (3) Service providers — barbers, washermen, moneylenders and officials who kept the town functioning. This occupational diversity shows that towns were not just trade centres but complete economic communities. / एक मध्यकालीन भारतीय शहर में विविध व्यवसाय होते थे: (1) शिल्पकार — बुनकर, धातुकर्मी, बढ़ई जो वस्तुएँ बनाते थे; (2) व्यापारी और सौदागर — जो स्थानीय और लंबी दूरी पर वस्तुएँ खरीदते, बेचते और ले जाते थे; (3) सेवा प्रदाता — नाई, धोबी, साहूकार और अधिकारी जो शहर को चालू रखते थे। यह व्यावसायिक विविधता दर्शाती है कि शहर केवल व्यापार केंद्र नहीं थे बल्कि पूर्ण आर्थिक समुदाय थे।
Related Laws & Principles
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