Chapter 2 — People As Resource

Definition: "People as resource" means seeing the population as a source of productive potential — a stock of skills, knowledge, energy and creativity that can be developed and used for economic growth and social development. Unlike natural resources, people are both producers and consumers, and their productive capacity can be improved by investment.

Key ideas:

• Human capital: Education, health, training and experience increase a person's ability to contribute productively. Investment in these areas is called investment in human capital.
• Quality vs quantity: A large population is an advantage only if people are healthy, educated and employed. Otherwise, population pressure can be a liability.
• Dynamic and renewable: People can learn new skills, innovate and adapt — unlike many natural resources.
• Demographic structure: Age distribution matters. A high proportion of working-age people (15–64) can create a demographic dividend if they are employed productively.

Why people are important for development:

• They produce goods and services (labour and entrepreneurship).
• They generate demand (consumption stimulates production).
• Skillful people improve productivity and adopt new technologies.
• Educated and healthy citizens contribute to social outcomes (lower crime, better governance, higher life expectancy).

How to convert population into a productive resource:

• Education (universal primary education, higher education, vocational training).
• Health care and nutrition (maternal & child health, immunisation, sanitation).
• Skill development and on-the-job training (apprenticeships, skill missions).
• Employment generation and inclusive labour markets (formalisation, entrepreneurship support).
• Gender equality and women’s participation in education and work.

Problems that prevent people being a resource:

• Poor health and malnutrition reduce productivity.
• Low levels of education and skills limit employability.
• Unemployment and underemployment waste human potential.
• Unequal access to opportunities (by gender, region, caste) leaves large groups underutilised.

Policy implications: Governments focus on education, health, family planning, skill training, social protection and labour-market reforms to turn population into an asset for growth.

Summary: Treating people as resources means investing in human capabilities so that the population contributes to higher productivity, innovation and sustainable development. Quantity matters only when quality and opportunities are present.

Introduction
Population refers to the total number of people living in a particular area (village, city, state, country or world) at a given time. In this topic we study three important aspects: size (how many), growth (how fast and why), and distribution (where they live).

1. Size of Population
Size is the absolute number of people in a place. Example: India’s population (Census 2011) was about 1.21 billion. Size is influenced by births, deaths and migration.

2. Growth of Population
Population growth is the change in population over time. It depends on:

• Births (fertility) — number of live births; higher fertility increases population.
• Deaths (mortality) — number of deaths; lower mortality (better healthcare) increases population.
• Migration — movement in (immigration) or out (emigration) changes local population size.

Stages of growth (simplified demographic transition):

1. High birth & high death → slow growth (pre-transition).
2. High birth & falling death → rapid growth (early transition).
3. Falling birth & low death → growth slows (late transition).
4. Low birth & low death → very slow growth or stable population (post-transition).

3. Distribution of Population
Distribution describes how people are spread over an area. It includes:

• Density — persons per unit area (e.g., per sq. km).
• Concentration patterns — crowded (e.g., cities) vs. sparsely populated areas (deserts, high mountains).
• Age-sex structure — proportions of males and females in different age groups (usually shown with a population pyramid).

Factors influencing distribution: physical factors (relief, climate, soil, water), economic factors (jobs, industry), historical/political (colonial hubs, capital cities), social factors (culture, religion) and infrastructure (transport, services).

Consequences of population growth and distribution include pressure on land, resources, employment, housing and services; environmental degradation; urban congestion and slums; or, at the other extreme, ageing populations and labour shortages in low-growth countries.

Policy responses include family planning, female education and empowerment, improved healthcare, balanced regional development to reduce migration pressure, and economic policies to generate employment.

Summary
Understanding size, growth and distribution helps planners decide where to build schools, hospitals, roads and how to design social and economic policies.

What are demographic features? Demographic features describe the structure and composition of a population — how many people there are, how they are distributed by age, sex, place, education and occupation. Key features include population size, density, distribution (urban/rural), age-sex composition, and rate of growth.

What are demographic indicators? Demographic indicators are measurable statistics used to assess population characteristics and trends. They help planners and policymakers in education, health, employment and resource allocation. Common indicators include birth rate, death rate, natural increase rate, infant mortality rate, sex ratio, literacy rate, life expectancy, fertility measures and dependency ratio.

Why they matter: These indicators show population health and social conditions. For example, a high birth rate with falling death rate indicates rapid growth (young population), requiring more schools and jobs. An ageing population (low birth rate, low death rate) needs pensions and healthcare.

Brief description of major indicators:

• Birth Rate (Crude Birth Rate): Number of live births per 1,000 people in a year. Shows reproductive level of a population.
• Death Rate (Crude Death Rate): Number of deaths per 1,000 people in a year. Indicates health and living conditions.
• Natural Increase Rate: Difference between birth rate and death rate (often expressed per 1,000 or as a percentage). Positive when births exceed deaths.
• Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): Number of deaths of children under one year per 1,000 live births. Key measure of child health and maternal care.
• Sex Ratio: Number of females per 1,000 males. Used to identify gender imbalances.
• Literacy Rate: Percentage of people (usually aged 7+) who can read and write with understanding. It indicates human capital quality.
• Dependency Ratio: Ratio of dependents (young under 15 and elderly 65+) to working-age population (15–64). High ratio means more economic pressure on workers.
• Life Expectancy: Average number of years a newborn is expected to live under current mortality conditions. Reflects overall health.

Using indicators for planning: If a region has a high birth rate and low median age, planners prioritize primary education, maternal and child health, and job creation. If a region has high elderly population and low fertility, focus shifts to geriatric care, pensions and healthcare infrastructure.

Definition: Human Resource Development (HRD) means increasing the quality of human resources by improving their health, education, skills and productivity so that they can contribute effectively to economic and social development.

Why HRD matters: People are not just numbers; they are productive assets. Investing in people raises their ability to work, innovate and earn — which increases overall national output, reduces poverty and improves quality of life.

Main components of HRD:

• Health and Nutrition: Good health (low infant mortality, higher life expectancy) and nutrition increase physical and mental capacity to learn and work.
• Education: Basic literacy, secondary and higher education build knowledge and enable higher-paying jobs.
• Skills and Vocational Training: Technical and soft skills make workers more productive and employable.
• Social Development: Gender equality, social inclusion and empowerment improve participation of all groups in development.

How HRD is promoted (examples of measures): public spending on schools and hospitals, school enrolment drives, mid-day meal schemes, immunisation and maternal care, vocational training centres, apprenticeship and skill development programmes, family welfare and women’s empowerment policies.

Indicators of HRD: literacy rate, school enrolment ratios, life expectancy, infant mortality rate, Gross Enrollment Ratio, employment and productivity measures, and composite indicators like Human Development Index (HDI).

Benefits: Higher productivity and incomes, better health and longer lives, reduced poverty and inequality, a more skilled workforce attractive to investors.

Challenges: Large population pressure, regional and gender disparities, inadequate infrastructure and funding, low quality of services in some areas, mismatch between education and job market needs.

Role of stakeholders: Government provides policies and funding; families and communities support education and health practices; schools, colleges and training centres deliver learning; private sector offers jobs and on-the-job training; NGOs often fill gaps in services.

What is Education and Literacy?

Education is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that enable individuals to develop their capacities and participate effectively in society. Literacy is the basic ability to read and write with understanding. In the context of national development, education converts people into productive human resources.

Types and Levels of Education

• Formal education: Schooling (primary, secondary, higher secondary), vocational and higher education.
• Non-formal education: Adult literacy classes, continuing education, skill training programmes.
• Informal education: Learning from home, work and community.

Why Education and Literacy Matter

• Economic growth: Better-educated workers are more productive, more employable and earn higher wages.
• Social development: Education improves health outcomes, reduces infant mortality, and promotes gender equality.
• Democratic participation: Literate citizens are better able to access information, understand rights and responsibilities, and participate in governance.

Key Indicators

• Literacy rate: Percentage of population aged 7 and above who can read and write.
• Male and female literacy rates: Show gender gap in education.
• Enrollment ratios: Gross and net enrollment ratios at different levels (primary, secondary).
• Years of schooling / mean years of schooling: Average schooling attained by population.

Determinants of Education and Constraints

• Economic factors: household income, cost of schooling, need for child labour.
• Social and cultural factors: gender norms, caste, attitudes towards education for girls.
• Supply-side factors: availability and quality of schools, teachers, infrastructure and learning materials.
• Policy and governance: public spending on education, targeted programmes, laws (for example Right to Education).

Policies and Programmes (examples relevant to India)

• Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009: Free and compulsory elementary education (6–14 years).
• Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA): Universalisation of elementary education; improves access and enrolment.
• Mid-Day Meal Scheme: Incentivises attendance and improves nutrition.
• Adult literacy and skill training programmes: Improve literacy and employability among adults.

Impacts of Improved Education

• Higher incomes and lower unemployment for educated individuals.
• Improved public health: educated mothers tend to have fewer children and lower child mortality.
• Reduction in poverty and social inequalities over time.

Class 9 Perspective (People as Resource)

Education turns population into human capital. Investment in education increases the productive potential of people and thus contributes to economic development. Attention to literacy, especially female literacy, is central because it multiplies benefits across generations.

What is Health and Nutrition?
Health means a state of complete physical, mental and social well‑being, not merely the absence of disease. Nutrition is the process by which the body takes in and uses food substances for growth, repair and maintenance of body functions. Good nutrition is a key component of good health.

Why it matters (importance)
Good health and adequate nutrition improve individual productivity, learning ability and quality of life. For a country, a healthy and well‑nourished population is a better resource—more capable of education, work and social participation.

Determinants of Health and Nutrition

• Food and diet: Quantity (calories) and quality (proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals).
• Healthcare services: Immunization, maternal and child care, treatment of infections.
• Sanitation and clean water: Prevents water‑borne diseases (diarrhoea, cholera) that cause malnutrition.
• Education and awareness: Especially women’s education — improves child feeding and hygiene practices.
• Income and access: Higher income generally improves access to diverse foods and healthcare.

Types of malnutrition

• Undernutrition: Includes wasting (low weight for height), stunting (low height for age) and underweight (low weight for age).
• Micronutrient deficiencies: e.g., iron (anaemia), vitamin A deficiency, iodine deficiency.
• Overnutrition: Excess intake leading to overweight and obesity (growing in urban areas).

Consequences
Malnutrition in childhood leads to poor school performance, increased susceptibility to infections and higher child mortality. In adults it reduces work capacity and increases risk of chronic diseases if overnutrition occurs.

Indicators used to measure health & nutrition

• Body Mass Index (BMI) for adults
• Stunting, wasting, underweight prevalence for children
• Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), maternal mortality, life expectancy

How to improve health & nutrition (measures)

• Promote a balanced diet: cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, milk, fats and limited sugars.
• Regular immunization and access to basic healthcare.
• Safe drinking water, sanitation and handwashing.
• Nutrition education for families, especially mothers (infant feeding practices like exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months).
• Government programmes (examples: Mid‑Day Meal Scheme, Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), public health campaigns) that provide food, health checks and micronutrient supplements.

Summary
Health and nutrition are interlinked: adequate, balanced nutrition underpins physical and cognitive development and is shaped by food availability, healthcare, sanitation and education. Addressing malnutrition requires combined actions in food, health services and social policy.

Definition: The occupational structure of the population describes how the working population is distributed among different types of economic activities — namely the primary (agriculture & allied), secondary (manufacturing & industry) and tertiary (services) sectors. It shows what percentage of workers are engaged in each sector and how that distribution changes with development.

Sectors explained:

• Primary sector: Activities that directly use natural resources — farming, fishing, forestry, mining. People here are often self-employed or casual labourers.
• Secondary sector: Manufacturing and construction — converting raw materials into goods (textiles, automobiles, food processing, brick-making).
• Tertiary sector: Services — trade, transport, banking, education, health, IT, tourism.

Typical pattern and change over time: In less developed economies a large share of workers are in the primary sector. With development, labour shifts to secondary and then increasingly to tertiary sectors. This structural shift happens because of mechanisation in agriculture, industrialisation, urbanisation, rising education & skills, and growth in service demand.

Key features and issues:

• High primary share: Often indicates lower productivity and dependence on agriculture.
• Disguised unemployment: More people employed in agriculture than needed — marginal productivity of many workers is zero or negligible.
• Informal employment: Large informal or unorganised workforce in services and small-scale industries (no social security, low incomes).
• Regional differences: Some states/regions remain agriculture-dominant while others specialise in manufacturing or services (e.g., IT hubs).

Why occupational structure matters: It determines productivity, income levels, vulnerability to shocks, and policy needs (education, skill training, rural development, social protection). Seeing people as a resource requires improving skills and creating productive jobs so human potential contributes to economic growth.

Policy implications: Promote agricultural productivity and reduce disguised unemployment (mechanisation, land reform, credit), support small industries and manufacturing (skill training, infrastructure), and create quality formal service jobs (education, digital skills, labour laws).

Unemployment

Unemployment occurs when people who are willing and able to work at the prevailing wage rates cannot find jobs. It is an important indicator of an economy's health because unused labour means lost output and income.

Measurement

To measure unemployment we use the concepts of Working Age Population (WAP), Labour Force, Employed and Unemployed. The labour force includes only those who are either employed or actively seeking work (unemployed). People not seeking work (students, home-makers not searching, retired) are not counted as unemployed.

Types of Unemployment

• Frictional unemployment: Short-term unemployment while people switch jobs or enter the labour force for the first time (e.g., a graduate looking for the first job).
• Structural unemployment: Mismatch between workers' skills/location and job requirements (e.g., traditional weavers losing jobs when factories automate).
• Cyclical (demand-deficient) unemployment: Caused by a fall in aggregate demand during recessions (e.g., layoffs in manufacturing when demand falls).
• Seasonal unemployment: Jobs available only during certain seasons (e.g., agricultural labourers or tourist-sector workers in off-season).
• Disguised/underemployment: More people employed than required or working fewer hours than desired (common in family farms); not counted as unemployment but indicates under-utilisation of labour.
• Voluntary unemployment: When people choose not to work at current wages (e.g., waiting for better jobs).

Causes

• Insufficient job creation relative to population growth and labour force expansion.
• Technological change that makes certain skills obsolete.
• Seasonal nature of some industries (agriculture, tourism).
• Slow economic growth or recession reducing demand for labour.
• Mismatch between education/skills and market needs.
• Rigid labour laws, lack of capital, regional imbalances.

Effects

• Economic: Lower national output (lost GDP), reduced incomes, higher poverty.
• Social: Increased stress, crime, social unrest, lower health and education outcomes.
• Long-term: Skill erosion, discouraged workers leaving labour force.

Remedies and Policies

• Promote labour-intensive industries and small-scale enterprises.
• Skill development and vocational training to reduce structural mismatch.
• Public works and employment guarantee schemes (e.g., MGNREGA in India) to provide temporary jobs.
• Encourage entrepreneurship, microfinance and self-employment programs.
• Improve education to match market demand and strengthen career counselling.
• Regional development to reduce migration and regional unemployment gaps.

Understanding and addressing unemployment requires both short-term measures (public works, unemployment benefits) and long-term reforms (education, economic diversification and investment) so that the growing labour force can be productively employed.

Introduction
In social science, the population of a country is seen in two contrasting ways: as an asset when people add to economic and social development, and as a liability when they impose a burden on resources and slow progress.

People as an Asset

• Definition: People become an asset (human capital) when their skills, knowledge, health and energy contribute to increased production, innovation and economic growth.
• Key features: educated and healthy workforce, high labour-force participation, skill diversity, mobility and entrepreneurship.
• How this helps: raises productivity, increases national income, improves standards of living and can lead to a demographic dividend when a large share of population is of working age.

People as a Liability

• Definition: People are a liability when a large number are dependent (too young, too old, ill or unemployed) and require resources without contributing sufficiently to production.
• Key features: high unemployment, low literacy/skills, poor health, high dependency ratio, unchecked population growth and unequal opportunities.
• How this hurts: increases public spending on health, education and welfare without corresponding rise in output; can reduce per capita income and slow development.

Factors determining whether people are asset or liability

• Education and skills (human capital formation)
• Health and nutrition
• Employment opportunities and economic structure
• Age-structure (proportion of working-age population)
• Social factors: gender equality, mobility, governance and policies

How to turn liability into asset

• Invest in universal, quality education and vocational training
• Improve healthcare, sanitation and nutrition
• Create more employment through economic diversification and growth
• Promote family planning and empower women to increase labour participation
• Address regional inequalities and invest in rural development

Summary
Whether people are an asset or a liability depends not only on population numbers but on the investments society makes in education, health and job creation, and on policies that convert potential working-age population into productive contributors.

Migration — meaning: Migration is the movement of people from one place to another with the intent to stay there for some time. It can be internal (within a country) or international (across countries).

Types of migration:

• By scale: Internal (rural–rural, rural–urban, urban–urban) and International.
• By duration: Permanent, temporary and seasonal migration.
• By cause: Voluntary (for work, education) and forced (displacement, conflict, disasters).

Causes of migration (Push and Pull factors):

• Economic: unemployment or low farm incomes in origin (push); better jobs and higher wages at destination (pull).
• Social: education, health facilities, family reunification.
• Political: conflict, persecution, insecurity.
• Environmental: droughts, floods, land degradation.

Impacts of migration:

• On origin areas: reduced labour supply, sometimes remittances (money sent home), social changes and demographic shifts.
• On destination areas: labour force increase, economic growth, cultural diversity; also pressure on housing, infrastructure, increase in informal settlements (slums), congestion and environmental stress.
• On migrants: new opportunities, but also risks of poor living conditions, exploitation and lack of social security.

Urbanisation — meaning: Urbanisation is the process by which an increasing proportion of a country’s population comes to live in urban areas (towns and cities).

Causes of urbanisation:

• Rural-to-urban migration seeking jobs, education and services.
• Natural increase (higher birth rate minus death rate) in towns/cities.
• Reclassification of rural areas into urban due to growth and changing functions.

Consequences of urbanisation:

• Positive: economies of scale, industrial and service-sector growth, better access to education and health, innovation and higher incomes.
• Negative: overcrowding, traffic, pollution, inadequate water and sanitation, spread of slums, social inequality.

How migration and urbanisation are linked: Large-scale rural-to-urban migration is a major driver of urbanisation. Migrants move to cities for jobs and services, increasing urban population and often accelerating the expansion and transformation of towns into larger cities.

Measurement and indicators (overview): Urbanisation is measured by the urbanisation rate (percentage of population living in urban areas). Migration is measured by counts of migrants, migration rates and net migration figures.

Policy responses and planning: To manage migration and urbanisation governments plan urban infrastructure (housing, transport, water, sanitation), promote balanced regional development (to reduce excessive migration), provide social protection and regulate land-use to limit slum growth.

Summary: Migration is people’s movement; urbanisation is the increasing share of people living in urban areas. Push–pull factors drive migration, which feeds urban growth. Both bring opportunities and challenges that require planned policy responses.

What it means: Government policies and programmes are deliberate actions by the state to develop human resources — improving people’s education, health, skills and employment opportunities so they become productive contributors to economic and social life.

Main goals: Increase literacy and schooling, improve health and nutrition, create secure employment, upgrade skills, reduce gender/region inequalities, and protect vulnerable groups.

Types of interventions:

• Education: Free/compulsory schooling, infrastructure, scholarships and mid-day meals to increase enrolment, reduce dropout and raise learning outcomes.
• Health & Nutrition: Immunisation, primary health services, maternal/child nutrition and insurance to lower morbidity and mortality and improve productivity.
• Skill development & Employment: Vocational training, apprenticeships and rural employment schemes to increase employability and incomes.
• Social security & family welfare: Safety nets, women’s empowerment, family planning and child development services to stabilise family welfare and long-term human capital.
• Delivery methods: Direct public provisioning, subsidies, cash transfers, regulation, public–private partnerships, and decentralised implementation (e.g., Panchayats, local bodies).

How policies improve human resources: Better education raises skills and cognitive capacity; good health reduces absenteeism and increases life expectancy and working years; skill training aligns labour supply with market needs; social programmes reduce poverty and inequality, enabling investment in education and health.

Key challenges: Insufficient funding, gaps between policy design and ground-level implementation (leakages, poor monitoring), low quality of services (teaching, primary health), regional and gender disparities, and mismatch between training and labour-market demand.

Monitoring success: Governments track measurable indicators such as enrolment and completion rates, literacy, infant and maternal mortality rates, life expectancy, employment/unemployment rates and poverty levels to evaluate programmes and redesign them where needed.

What is meant by 'Quality of People'? The quality of people refers to the stock of human capital in a country — the health, education, skills, and productivity of its population. Higher quality means healthier, better‑educated and more skilled people who can contribute effectively to economic and social development.

Main challenges affecting quality of people

• Illiteracy and poor educational access: Low enrolment, high dropout rates, and poor learning outcomes reduce human capital.
• Poor health and malnutrition: Child malnutrition, communicable diseases, and inadequate maternal and primary health services lower physical and cognitive development.
• Gender inequality: Discrimination in education, nutrition and employment limits women’s potential.
• Skilled–unskilled mismatch: Lack of vocational and technical training causes unemployment or underemployment despite a large labour force.
• Population pressure and regional disparities: High dependency ratios, overburdened services, and unequal access across states/regions worsen outcomes.
• Poverty and social exclusion: Poverty reduces access to education and health; marginalized groups face additional barriers.
• Inadequate public investment: Low spending on education, health and training leads to poor infrastructure and quality.
• Brain drain: Skilled people migrating abroad reduce the domestic skill base.

Measures to improve quality of people

• Universal and quality education: Ensure access to free and compulsory primary education, strengthen secondary schooling, teacher training, learning materials and reduce dropouts. (Examples: Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Right to Education Act).
• Health and nutrition interventions: Improve primary health care, immunisation, maternal and child health, and tackle malnutrition through ICDS and mid‑day meals to improve cognition and school attendance.
• Skill development and vocational training: Provide demand‑driven training and apprenticeships to reduce the gap between education and jobs. (Example: Skill India, PMKVY.)
• Gender empowerment: Promote girls’ education, women’s health services, and economic opportunities (e.g., Beti Bachao Beti Padhao).
• Social protection and poverty reduction: Cash transfers, food security, and employment guarantees (e.g., MGNREGA) reduce vulnerability and allow investment in human capital.
• Improved public investment and policy: Higher and better‑targeted public spending on health, education and training; decentralised planning to address regional needs.
• Private sector & NGO participation: Encourage partnerships for school improvement, health outreach and skill delivery; incentivise corporate social responsibility (CSR).
• Awareness and behavioural change: Campaigns on health, nutrition, family planning and the value of education change social norms that limit human potential.

How these measures help: Better education raises productivity and employability; improved health raises life expectancy and work capacity; skill development reduces unemployment; gender equality multiplies development gains. Together they increase per capita income and overall welfare.

Concluding note: Improving the quality of people is a long‑term, multi‑sectoral effort requiring coordinated policy, adequate funding, community involvement and monitoring to ensure outcomes for all groups and regions.

What are data sources? Data sources are the origins from which statistical information is obtained. In the context of people as a resource, data about population, health, education, employment and skills come from different surveys and records. Reliable data are essential for planning and policy.

Major types of data sources

• Primary sources — data collected firsthand for a specific purpose: census, sample surveys, field investigations, interviews and experiments. Example: Population Census.
• Secondary sources — data already collected by others and published: government reports, statistical abstracts, research papers, newspapers, and international databases (UN, World Bank).
• Registration and administrative records — continuous records kept by government departments: birth and death registrations, school enrollment records, tax records, hospital records.

Key official sources in India — Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner (Census), National Sample Survey Office (NSSO)/National Sample Survey (sample surveys), Vital Statistics (births/deaths), National Family Health Survey (NFHS), Economic Survey, and ministry databases.

Features of good statistics

• Reliable and accurate
• Relevant to the question being asked
• Timely (available when needed)
• Comparable over time and across regions
• Complete (covers necessary population or sample)

Importance of statistics

• Planning and policy-making: Governments use population, employment and health statistics to plan schools, hospitals, jobs and social programmes.
• Monitoring and evaluation: Statistics help check whether a programme (e.g., a vaccination drive) is effective.
• Allocation of resources: Funds and services can be directed to areas with greater need (high unemployment, low literacy).
• Comparison and benchmarking: Compare regions, states or countries (literacy rates, per capita income) to identify lagging areas.
• Predicting trends: Population growth, ageing, migration and labour-force trends are forecasted using past statistics.
• Decision-making in business and society: Businesses use demographic and income data for market decisions; NGOs use health and poverty data to target help.
• Accountability and transparency: Public statistics allow citizens to assess government performance.

Class 9 perspective — simple examples of use: Census figures determine the number of representatives and help plan schools; birth and death registration gives reliable infant mortality rates; an NSSO employment survey estimates unemployment rate used to design job schemes.