Overview
Federalism is the second of the two great devices this book studies for holding a diverse country together, and it follows directly from the vertical form of power sharing introduced in the first chapter. A federation is a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country, with two or more levels of government existing at the same time, each with its own jurisdiction laid down in a written constitution that neither level can alter alone. The chapter distinguishes federations formed by independent states coming together to pool sovereignty - the USA, Switzerland, Australia - from those in which a large country decided to divide power between constituent states and the national government, as India, Belgium and Spain did. India belongs to the second, holding together type, and this explains a great deal about its design: a strong central government, states that are not all equal in their powers, and special provisions for Jammu and Kashmir and for some north-eastern states. The Constitution divides subjects into a Union List, a State List and a Concurrent List, with residuary powers left to the Union. But the chapter's real argument is that a constitution is not enough. Federalism succeeded in India because of what was practised, not merely what was written: the creation of linguistic states, a flexible language policy that refused to impose Hindi and kept English alongside it, and the change in Centre-State relations after 1990, when coalition governments and the Supreme Court's restraint on arbitrary dismissal of state governments ended an earlier era. The chapter closes with the third tier - the decentralisation created by the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments of 1992, which made panchayats and municipalities a permanent, elected and reserved part of Indian federalism, and with an honest assessment of how little power and resource has actually followed.
Learning Objectives
- Define federalism and list the key features that distinguish a federation from a unitary system.
- Distinguish between coming together and holding together federations, with examples of each.
- Explain why India is described as a holding together federation and what follows from that for the powers of the Centre.
- Describe the three lists in the Constitution and give examples of subjects in each.
- Explain what residuary powers are and which level of government holds them in India.
- Explain why all Indian states do not have identical powers, referring to special provisions and Union Territories.
- Explain how the creation of linguistic states strengthened rather than weakened Indian unity.
- Describe India's language policy and explain why it is regarded as an example of accommodation.
- Describe the change in Centre-State relations after 1990 and the role of coalition governments and the judiciary.
- Explain decentralisation and describe the main provisions of the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments.
- Evaluate the working of the third tier, noting both its achievements and its limitations.
Topics in this chapter
12 topics · tap a topic title to jump straight to it.
What is Federalism?
The definition
Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country. Usually a federation has two levels of government. The government for the entire country is responsible for a few subjects of common national interest. The governments at the level of provinces or states look after much of the day-to-day administering of their state.
Both levels are independent of each other
This is the sentence that carries the whole idea. Both these levels of government enjoy their power independent of the other. A state government is not a branch office of the central government; it does not hold its powers because the centre allows it to. Its authority comes from the same Constitution that creates the central government.
Recall the Belgian arrangement from the previous chapter: the textbook made a point of saying that Belgian state governments are not subordinate to the central government. That is the federal principle stated negatively.
- Federalism is the vertical form of power sharing introduced in Chapter 1 - power divided among levels rather than among organs.
- The central government handles subjects of common national interest; state governments handle day-to-day administration of the state.
- The defining test is independence: both levels derive authority from the Constitution, not from each other.
Unitary and Federal Systems Compared
The basic contrast
Under the unitary system, either there is only one level of government, or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government. The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government.
The federal contrast
In a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something. The state government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. Both these governments are separately answerable to the people.
That last clause is the heart of it. In a unitary system accountability runs upward: the local body answers to the province, the province to the centre. In a federal system accountability runs outward from each level directly to the voters of that level. Sri Lanka is a unitary state; India, Belgium and the United States are federal ones.
- Unitary: the central government can pass on orders to provincial or local government, which must obey.
- Federal: the central government cannot order a state government to act within the state's own sphere.
- Sri Lanka has a unitary system - part of why its Tamil demand for regional autonomy could simply be refused.
The Key Features of a Federation
Six features
- There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government.
- Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
- The jurisdictions of the respective levels are specified in the constitution, so the existence and authority of each tier is constitutionally guaranteed.
- The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels.
- Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of their respective powers.
- Sources of revenue for each level are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
The dual objective
The federal system has dual objectives: to safeguard and promote the unity of the country, while at the same time accommodating regional diversity. Two aspects are therefore crucial: governments at different levels should agree to some rules of power sharing, and they should also trust that each would abide by its part of the agreement. An ideal federal system has both: mutual trust and agreement to live together.
- Feature 4 in practice: an amendment affecting India's federal structure requires ratification by at least half the state legislatures.
- Feature 5 in practice: the Supreme Court decides Union-State disputes about their respective powers - it acts as umpire.
- Feature 6 in practice: without independent revenue, a state's constitutional powers would be worthless.
Coming Together Federations
The first route
The first route involves independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignty and retaining identity they can increase their security. This type of coming together federation includes the USA, Switzerland and Australia.
What follows from it
In this category, all the constituent States usually have equal power and are strong vis-a-vis the federal government. That makes sense: the states existed first and created the centre. They were negotiating parties, and none had reason to accept a settlement in which it was weaker than its neighbours or subordinate to a government it had itself brought into being.
The American case is the classic one. Thirteen colonies, having won independence separately, chose to unite; each state kept substantial powers, and the Senate gives every state equal representation regardless of population, precisely because the states are treated as founding partners.
- USA, Switzerland and Australia are the standard examples of coming together federations.
- The states existed before the union and created it, so they bargained for strong and equal powers.
- Pooling sovereignty while retaining identity is the motive - typically security and the advantages of a larger unit.
Holding Together Federations
The second route
The second route is where a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the national government. India, Spain and Belgium are examples of this kind of holding together federation.
What follows from it
In this category the central government tends to be more powerful vis-a-vis the States. Very often different constituent units have unequal powers, and some are granted special powers.
Again the logic follows from the history. The country existed first and chose to devolve power; the centre was never a creature of the states. And because the country was being held together, the arrangement had to be tailored to whichever regions needed particular reassurance — which produces unequal, asymmetric powers rather than a uniform template.
India is a holding together federation. Almost everything distinctive about Indian federalism — a strong Union, asymmetric state powers, special provisions, residuary powers at the centre — is a consequence of that single fact.
- India, Spain and Belgium are holding together federations.
- The centre is stronger because the country preceded the states, not the other way round.
- Unequal powers are a feature, not a defect, of holding together federations - they are how particular regions are accommodated.
What Makes India a Federal Country
Federal in structure, though the word is not used
The Constitution declared India a Union of States. Although it did not use the word federation, the Indian Union is based on the principles of federalism. India had two levels of government from the beginning; a third tier was added later in the form of panchayats and municipalities.
The essential features are present
- There are two sets of governments: one for the entire nation, called the Union or Central Government, and others at the level of the States.
- The Constitution clearly provided a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and the State Governments.
- The fundamental provisions cannot be unilaterally altered by one level; such changes require the consent of both levels.
- The judiciary oversees the implementation of constitutional provisions and settles disputes about the division of powers.
- Sources of revenue for each level are clearly specified to ensure financial autonomy.
- The Constitution says 'Union of States', not 'federation', yet every federal feature is present.
- India began with two tiers; the third tier of panchayats and municipalities was added by amendment in 1992.
- Amendments touching the federal structure need ratification by at least half the State legislatures - neither level can change the bargain alone.
The Three Lists: Union, State and Concurrent
A three-fold distribution of legislative powers
The Constitution provided a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and the State Governments. It contains three lists.
Union List
Subjects of national importance, because we need a uniform policy on these matters throughout the country: defence of the country, foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency. The Union Government alone can make laws on these subjects.
State List
Subjects of State and local importance: police, trade, commerce, agriculture and irrigation. The State Governments alone can make laws on these subjects.
Concurrent List
Subjects of common interest to both: education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession. Both the Union and the State Governments can make laws on these. If their laws conflict with each other, the law made by the Union Government will prevail.
Read the three lists as an answer to a single question: at what scale does this subject need to be decided? Currency and defence make no sense at state scale; policing and irrigation make no sense at national scale; education and forests genuinely belong to both, so both may legislate and a tie-break rule is provided.
- Union List: defence, foreign affairs, banking, communications, currency - subjects needing one uniform national policy.
- State List: police, trade, commerce, agriculture, irrigation - subjects of state and local importance.
- Concurrent List: education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption, succession - both may legislate, but Union law prevails in a conflict.
Residuary Powers and the Unequal Status of States
Residuary subjects
What about subjects that do not fall in any of the three lists, or subjects like computer software that came up after the Constitution was made? The Constitution says that the Union Government has the power to legislate on these residuary subjects.
This is a strongly centralising provision, and it is exactly what the holding together model predicts. In the USA, a coming together federation, residuary powers rest with the states.
Not all states have identical powers
All States in the Indian Union do not have identical powers. Some States enjoy a special status. Jammu and Kashmir had its own Constitution under Article 370, and many provisions of the Indian Constitution did not apply to it without the approval of the State Assembly; Indians from other States could not purchase land or a house there. Similar special provisions exist for some other States, especially in the north-east, which have a distinct history and culture.
Union Territories
Then there are areas too small to become an independent State but which could not be merged with any existing State — Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, the capital city of Delhi. These are Union Territories. They do not have the powers of a State; the Central Government has special powers in running these areas.
- Computer software is the textbook's example of a residuary subject - it did not exist when the lists were drawn up.
- In India residuary powers lie with the Union; in the USA they lie with the states - the difference between holding together and coming together.
- Union Territories such as Chandigarh, Lakshadweep and Delhi do not have the powers of a State.
How Federalism is Practised: Linguistic States
A constitution is not enough
The real success of federalism in India can be attributed to the nature of democratic politics in our country. This ensured that the spirit of federalism, respect for diversity and desire for living together became a shared ideal. The chapter now turns from what is written to what is done, and offers three major ways in which federalism has been strengthened in practice.
Linguistic States
The creation of linguistic States was the first and a major test for democratic politics in our country. The boundaries of several old States were changed in order to create new States, so that people who spoke the same language lived in the same State. Some States were created not on the basis of language but to recognise differences based on culture, ethnicity or geography — Nagaland, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand are examples.
The fear, and what actually happened
When the demand for States on the basis of language was raised, some national leaders feared that it would lead to the disintegration of the country. The Central Government resisted linguistic States for some time. But the experience has shown that the formation of linguistic States has actually made the country more united. It has also made administration easier.
The reasoning is worth stating plainly: a person governed in a language they understand, by officials they can argue with, has far less reason to feel that the state is an alien imposition. Recognising a difference removed a grievance instead of creating one.
- Boundaries were redrawn so that people speaking the same language lived in the same state.
- Nagaland, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand were created on grounds of culture, ethnicity or geography rather than language.
- The predicted disintegration did not happen; the country became more united and administration became easier.
The Language Policy
No national language
A second test is the language policy. Our Constitution did not give the status of national language to any one language. Hindi was identified as the official language. But Hindi is the mother tongue of only about 40 per cent of Indians. Therefore there were many safeguards to protect other languages. Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognised as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution. A candidate in an examination for Central Government positions may opt to take the examination in any of these languages.
The English question
States too have their own official languages, and much government work takes place in the official language of the concerned State. According to the Constitution, the use of English for official purposes was to stop in 1965. However, many non-Hindi speaking States demanded that the use of English continue. In Tamil Nadu this movement took a violent form. The Central Government responded by agreeing to continue the use of English along with Hindi for official purposes.
The principle
Many critics say that this flexibility shows the weakness of the Centre. But such a decision helped our country avoid the kind of situation Sri Lanka finds itself in. Promotion of Hindi continues to be the official policy of the Government of India, but it does not mean imposing Hindi on States where people speak a different language.
Set the two dates side by side and the whole chapter comes into focus. In 1956 Sri Lanka made one language the only official language and got a civil war. In 1965 India faced the same choice, backed down, and kept the country together.
- Hindi is the official language, not the national language - a distinction that carries the whole policy.
- 22 Scheduled Languages in all; central government examinations may be taken in any of them.
- The 1965 deadline for ending official English was abandoned after protests, especially in Tamil Nadu - the direct contrast with Sri Lanka's Act of 1956.
Centre-State Relations: Before and After 1990
The old pattern
Restructuring Centre-State relations is one more way in which federalism has been strengthened in practice. For a long time the same party ruled both at the Centre and in most of the States. This meant that State governments did not exercise their rights as autonomous federal units. As and when the ruling party at the State level was different, the party ruling at the Centre tried to undermine the power of the States. In those days the Central Government would often misuse the Constitution to dismiss State governments controlled by rival parties. This undermined the spirit of federalism.
What changed
All this changed significantly after 1990. This period saw the rise of regional political parties in many States. It was also the beginning of the era of coalition governments at the Centre. Since no single party got a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, the major national parties had to enter into an alliance with many parties, including several regional parties, to form a government at the Centre. This led to a new culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of State Governments.
The judicial contribution
This trend was supported by a major judgment of the Supreme Court that made it difficult for the Central Government to dismiss State governments in an arbitrary manner. Thus federal power sharing is more effective today than it was in the early years of the Republic.
Note what did the work here. Not a constitutional amendment — the text was unchanged. What changed was the party system: once the Centre needed regional parties to survive, it could no longer afford to treat their states as subordinates.
- Before 1990: one party at the Centre and in most States, and rival state governments dismissed by misuse of constitutional provisions.
- After 1990: regional parties rise, coalition governments become the norm, and the Centre must respect its allies' states.
- The Supreme Court's judgment made arbitrary dismissal of State governments difficult - a legal check reinforcing a political change.
Decentralisation and the Third Tier
Why a third tier
When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to local government, it is called decentralisation. The basic idea is that there are a large number of problems and issues which are best settled at the local level. People have better knowledge of problems in their localities, better ideas on where to spend money and how to manage things efficiently. Besides, at the local level it is possible for people to directly participate in decision making. This helps to inculcate a habit of democratic participation.
The 1992 amendments
A major step towards decentralisation was taken in 1992, when the Constitution was amended to make the third tier more powerful and effective.
- It is now constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies.
- Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and in the executive headships for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
- At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
- An independent State Election Commission has been created in each State to conduct panchayat and municipal elections.
- State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local bodies; the nature of sharing varies from State to State.
The structure
Rural local government is known as panchayati raj: the gram panchayat at village level, with a gram sabha of all voters; the panchayat samiti (block or mandal) at the intermediate level; and the zilla parishad at district level. In urban areas, municipalities are set up for towns and municipal corporations for big cities, headed by a mayor.
An honest assessment
Constitutional status for local government has helped to deepen democracy and has increased women's representation and voice. But local bodies have very little power and resources of their own. Elections are held regularly, but gram sabhas are not held regularly, and most State governments have not transferred significant powers to local governments, nor given them adequate resources.
- About 36 lakh elected representatives sit in panchayats and municipalities - the largest experiment in democratic decentralisation in the world.
- One-third of all positions reserved for women; reservation also for SC, ST and OBC, including for the posts of executive head.
- The honest limitation: regular elections happen, but powers and resources have largely not followed.
Key Concepts
- Federalism
- A system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units, each enjoying its powers independently of the other.
- Unitary system
- A system with only one level of government, or one in which sub-units are subordinate to the central government and can be given orders by it.
- Jurisdiction
- The area over which someone has legally granted power - it may be defined by territory or by subject matter.
- Coming together federation
- A federation formed when independent states pool sovereignty to form a bigger unit; constituent states are usually equal and strong. Examples: USA, Switzerland, Australia.
- Holding together federation
- A federation formed when a large country divides power between itself and its constituent states; the centre is stronger and states may have unequal powers. Examples: India, Spain, Belgium.
- Union of States
- The phrase the Indian Constitution uses instead of federation, while adopting every federal principle.
- Union List
- Subjects of national importance requiring a uniform policy - defence, foreign affairs, banking, communications, currency - on which only the Union Government may legislate.
- State List
- Subjects of state and local importance - police, trade, commerce, agriculture, irrigation - on which only State Governments may legislate.
- Concurrent List
- Subjects of common interest - education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption, succession - on which both may legislate, with Union law prevailing in a conflict.
- Residuary powers
- Power to legislate on subjects not mentioned in any list, including subjects that did not exist when the Constitution was framed; in India these belong to the Union.
- Special status
- Constitutional provisions giving particular states powers or protections other states do not have, granted to accommodate a distinct history or culture.
- Union Territory
- An area too small to be an independent state and not merged with any state, administered with special powers by the Central Government - for example Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, Delhi.
- Linguistic states
- States created or reorganised so that people speaking the same language live in the same state - the first major test of Indian federalism.
- Official language
- The language used for the official business of government; in India, Hindi, with English continuing alongside it. It is not a national language.
- Scheduled Languages
- The 22 languages recognised by the Constitution, in any of which a candidate may take a central government examination.
- Coalition government
- A government formed by an alliance of parties when no single party has a majority; after 1990 this made the Centre more respectful of state autonomy.
- Decentralisation
- Taking power away from Central and State governments and giving it to local government.
- Panchayati raj
- The three-tier system of rural local self-government: gram panchayat, panchayat samiti, zilla parishad.
- Gram sabha
- The body of all the voters of a village, which is meant to meet to approve the panchayat's budget and review its performance.
- Gram panchayat
- The elected council of a village, headed by a sarpanch or president, and the working body of the gram sabha.
- Panchayat samiti
- The intermediate tier of panchayati raj at block or mandal level, formed by the panchayats of that area.
- Zilla parishad
- The district-level body of panchayati raj, chaired by an elected president, with most members elected from the district's panchayat samitis.
- Municipality
- The elected local body for a town; a big city has a municipal corporation, headed by a mayor.
- State Election Commission
- The independent institution created in each State by the 1992 amendments to conduct panchayat and municipal elections.
- 73rd and 74th Amendments
- The 1992 constitutional amendments that made local government a mandatory, elected third tier with reserved seats, including one-third for women.
End-of-Chapter Trial Paper & Test Questions
Topic-wise questions to test your understanding of every concept in this chapter.
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Define federalism. / संघवाद को परिभाषित कीजिए।
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Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country, with each level of government having its own jurisdiction. / संघवाद शासन की वह प्रणाली है जिसमें सत्ता एक केंद्रीय सरकार और देश की विभिन्न इकाइयों के बीच बँटी होती है, और सरकार के प्रत्येक स्तर का अपना अलग अधिकार-क्षेत्र होता है।
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Distinguish between 'coming together' and 'holding together' federations with examples. / उदाहरण सहित 'साथ आकर' तथा 'साथ लेकर चलने वाले' संघों में अंतर स्पष्ट कीजिए।
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In a 'coming together' federation independent states join to form a bigger unit and have equal power, as in the USA and Switzerland. In a 'holding together' federation a large country divides power between states and the central government, which is usually more powerful, as in India and Spain. / 'साथ आकर' बनने वाले संघ में स्वतंत्र राज्य मिलकर एक बड़ी इकाई बनाते हैं और उनकी शक्ति बराबर होती है, जैसे अमेरिका और स्विट्जरलैंड। 'साथ लेकर चलने वाले' संघ में एक बड़ा देश राज्यों और केंद्र के बीच सत्ता बाँटता है, जहाँ केंद्र अधिक शक्तिशाली होता है, जैसे भारत और स्पेन।
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Explain the three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union and State governments in India. / भारत में संघ और राज्य सरकारों के बीच विधायी शक्तियों के तीन-स्तरीय वितरण को समझाइए।
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The Constitution provides a Union List of subjects on which only the central government can legislate (e.g. defence, currency), a State List on which only states legislate (e.g. police, agriculture), and a Concurrent List on which both can legislate (e.g. education, marriage), with central law prevailing in case of conflict. / संविधान में संघ सूची है जिस पर केवल केंद्र कानून बनाता है (जैसे रक्षा, मुद्रा), राज्य सूची जिस पर केवल राज्य कानून बनाते हैं (जैसे पुलिस, कृषि), और समवर्ती सूची जिस पर दोनों कानून बना सकते हैं (जैसे शिक्षा, विवाह), तथा टकराव की स्थिति में केंद्र का कानून मान्य होता है।
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Why is the sharing of power between the Union and the States considered the basic feature of the Indian Constitution? / संघ और राज्यों के बीच सत्ता का बँटवारा भारतीय संविधान की मूल विशेषता क्यों माना जाता है?
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Because the division of powers is written into the Constitution and cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government; changes require the consent of both Houses of Parliament with a special majority and often the states, ensuring neither can override the other. / क्योंकि शक्तियों का बँटवारा संविधान में लिखित है और इसे सरकार का कोई एक स्तर अकेले नहीं बदल सकता; बदलाव के लिए संसद के दोनों सदनों के विशेष बहुमत और प्रायः राज्यों की सहमति आवश्यक है, जिससे कोई पक्ष दूसरे पर हावी नहीं हो सकता।
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How did the policy of accommodation and the linguistic states strengthen the unity of India? / समायोजन की नीति तथा भाषायी राज्यों ने भारत की एकता को किस प्रकार मजबूत किया?
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After 1947 boundaries of several states were redrawn on the basis of language so that people speaking the same language could live in one state, which made administration easier and, contrary to fears, made the country more united and strong. / 1947 के बाद कई राज्यों की सीमाएँ भाषा के आधार पर फिर से बनाई गईं ताकि एक भाषा बोलने वाले लोग एक राज्य में रहें, जिससे प्रशासन आसान हुआ और आशंकाओं के विपरीत देश और अधिक एकजुट तथा मजबूत बना।
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Examine how the three-language formula helped India avoid the kind of language conflicts seen in Sri Lanka. / तीन-भाषा सूत्र ने भारत को श्रीलंका जैसे भाषायी टकराव से बचने में किस प्रकार मदद की, इसका परीक्षण कीजिए।
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India did not give any single language the status of the sole national language; Hindi is the official language alongside English and 21 other Scheduled Languages, so no community felt dominated, whereas Sri Lanka's imposition of Sinhala alienated Tamils and led to conflict. / भारत ने किसी एक भाषा को एकमात्र राष्ट्रभाषा का दर्जा नहीं दिया; हिंदी अंग्रेजी और 21 अन्य अनुसूचित भाषाओं के साथ राजभाषा है, इसलिए किसी समुदाय ने दबाव महसूस नहीं किया, जबकि श्रीलंका द्वारा सिंहली थोपने से तमिल अलग-थलग पड़े और टकराव हुआ।
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What is decentralisation, and how did the 1992 constitutional amendment make local self-government more powerful in India? / विकेंद्रीकरण क्या है, और 1992 के संविधान संशोधन ने भारत में स्थानीय स्वशासन को किस प्रकार अधिक शक्तिशाली बनाया?
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Decentralisation means taking power away from the Union and State governments and giving it to local governments. The 1992 amendment made regular elections to local bodies mandatory, reserved seats for SCs, STs and OBCs and one-third for women, set up State Election Commissions, and required states to share powers and revenue with these bodies. / विकेंद्रीकरण का अर्थ है संघ और राज्य सरकारों से शक्ति लेकर स्थानीय सरकारों को देना। 1992 के संशोधन ने स्थानीय निकायों के नियमित चुनाव अनिवार्य किए, अनुसूचित जाति/जनजाति और अन्य पिछड़े वर्गों तथा महिलाओं के लिए एक-तिहाई सीटें आरक्षित कीं, राज्य चुनाव आयोग बनाए, और राज्यों को इन निकायों के साथ शक्ति व राजस्व बाँटने को बाध्य किया।
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A village has 4,000 voters and its Gram Panchayat must reserve one-third of its seats for women out of a total of 12 seats. How many seats are reserved for women, and which body elects the Panchayat? / एक गाँव में 4,000 मतदाता हैं और उसकी ग्राम पंचायत को कुल 12 सीटों में से एक-तिहाई सीटें महिलाओं के लिए आरक्षित करनी हैं। महिलाओं के लिए कितनी सीटें आरक्षित हैं, और पंचायत को कौन चुनता है?
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One-third of 12 = 4 seats are reserved for women. The Panchayat (its ward members) is elected directly by all the adult voters of the village, i.e. the Gram Sabha. / 12 का एक-तिहाई = 4 सीटें महिलाओं के लिए आरक्षित हैं। पंचायत (इसके वार्ड सदस्य) को गाँव के सभी वयस्क मतदाताओं, अर्थात् ग्राम सभा द्वारा प्रत्यक्ष रूप से चुना जाता है।
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