Chapter 9 — Recent Developments In Indian Politics

Fig 1 — Educational Diagram: Economic reforms and political impact

Overview
Economic reforms refer to deliberate changes in economic policy to promote efficiency, growth and investment. In India the major phase began in 1991 (LPG: Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation). These reforms changed the role of the state, markets, incentives and social outcomes — producing significant political effects.

Main features of the 1991 reforms

• Deregulation of industry: fewer licences and permit requirements.
• Trade liberalisation: sharp reduction in import tariffs and quantitative restrictions.
• Fiscal correction: reduction of fiscal deficit targets, tax reforms.
• Privatisation and disinvestment: opening public sector to private/foreign ownership.
• FDI liberalisation: easier entry for foreign investors.

Economic outcomes (short to medium term)

• Higher GDP growth rates (particularly 2003–2007 and early 2010s).
• Rapid growth in services (IT, finance) and exports.
• Increased foreign capital inflows and private investment.
• Structural change: decline in agriculture’s share of GDP, urbanisation and skill-biased employment.
• Uneven distributional effects: regional and sectoral winners and losers; persistent poverty in many rural areas.

Political impacts

• Party system and electoral politics: Economic reforms coincided with the decline of single-party dominance (Congress) and the rise of coalition and regional parties. Reforms altered class coalitions: urban middle classes and business sectors became politically assertive; rural and labour groups often supported regional parties and welfare-oriented platforms.
• Federal politics and state roles: States became key actors in attracting investment (competition for FDI), increasing state-level policy innovation but also fiscal competition. Regional parties’ leverage in coalitions rose, shaping national policy.
• Policy priorities and programmes: To mitigate social costs governments introduced or expanded welfare schemes (e.g., NREGA 2005) and targeted subsidies — reflecting the political need to combine growth with social protection.
• Political mobilisations and protests: Reforms often produced resistance (workers, farmers, public sector unions). Recent examples include large-scale protests against land acquisition, privatisation moves and the 2020–21 farmers’ protests against farm-law changes.
• Accountability and governance: Economic opening increased demands for better governance, transparency and performance (electorate expectations for jobs, infrastructure). Parties used development narratives to win support (e.g., 2014 campaign emphasis on growth/efficiency).
• Electoral consequences of economic performance: Good macroeconomic performance (jobs, incomes) tends to help incumbents; “jobless growth” or rising inequality can fuel anti-incumbency and strengthen populist/welfare promises.

Critical debates

• Whether liberalisation caused long-term inequality and agrarian distress or whether pre-existing structural problems were the cause.
• Trade-offs between market efficiency and social equity; debates over privatization versus public ownership in essential sectors.
• Role of the state: regulator and facilitator vs provider of welfare — political choices shape outcomes.

Conclusion
Economic reforms transformed India’s economy and political landscape: they altered interest groups, electoral coalitions, federal dynamics and policy agendas. Political responses (coalitions, welfare schemes, protests) continue to shape how benefits and costs of reforms are distributed.

Fig 2 — Educational Diagram: Rise of coalition politics

Definition & context: "Rise of coalition politics" refers to the period from the late 1980s onwards when single-party majority governments at the Centre became rare and national rule was commonly exercised by multi-party alliances. This change reflected the fragmentation of the national party system and the growing importance of regional parties and caste-based politics.

Causes:

• Decline of Congress dominance: Electoral setbacks for Congress reduced its automatic majority-winning capacity.
• Social mobilisation and identity politics: Mandal Commission implementation (early 1990s) and rise of OBC, Dalit and regional identity-based parties boosted regional actors.
• Regional parties' strength: Parties like DMK, AIADMK, TDP, Shiv Sena, Trinamool, BSP, SP, and regional outfits won concentrated state-level votes translating into Lok Sabha seats.
• Electoral arithmetic under first-past-the-post: Regional concentration of votes gave smaller parties parliamentary leverage disproportionate to their national vote share.
• Coalition as necessity and strategy: Parties formed pre- and post-poll alliances to reach a majority and to keep rivals out.

Features of coalition era (practical outcomes):

• Common Minimum Programme (CMP): Coalitions negotiated CMPs to accommodate diverse partner demands while maintaining governance stability.
• Power-sharing & portfolios: Distribution of ministries and policy concessions to allies became routine.
• Policy moderation and consensus politics: Coalitions often produced negotiated, centrist policies, though at times leading to policy paralysis.
• Instability & bargaining: Short-lived governments and frequent cabinet reshuffles occurred when coalition agreements were weak or partners withdrew support.
• Institutional responses: Use of floor tests, President’s discretionary role during government formation, and strengthened anti-defection rules (Tenth Schedule, 1985) shaped coalition stability.

Impact on Indian politics: Coalition politics decentralised power, increased the bargaining power of regional parties, led to more heterogeneous policy inputs (regional & community concerns), and produced both inclusive consensus-building and episodic instability. It normalized coalition norms (CMPs, pre-poll alliances) and made coalition management a central skill in national politics.

Summary: The rise of coalition politics marks a shift from single-party dominance to negotiated multi-party governance driven by social mobilisation, regionalisation of electoral strength, and changing voter alignments. Coalitions altered how governments form, how policies are negotiated, and how regional interests are represented at the Centre.

Fig 3 — Educational Diagram: Rise and consolidation of the BJP

Overview: The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) rose from the political legacy of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh and the organisational support of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). From a marginal player in the 1970s and 1980s, the BJP became a major national party by the 1990s and consolidated its position into a dominant force after 2014. The process combined ideology, organisation, strategic alliances and electoral tactics.

Origins and early growth (1951–1990):

• The Jana Sangh (founded 1951) provided the ideological core. After the Emergency (1975–77) it merged into the Janata Party and later reconstituted as the BJP (1980).
• Through the 1980s the BJP remained small electorally but built organisational networks, benefiting from RSS cadres and a disciplined local presence.
• The Ram Janmabhoomi movement (late 1980s–1992) acted as a political catalyst, mobilising large sections of voters around cultural and identity issues and increasing the BJP's vote share and visibility.

Electoral breakthrough and coalition politics (1990s):

• The BJP emerged as a major party in the 1990s. In the 1996 Lok Sabha elections it became the largest single party, and by 1998–99 it led the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) under Atal Bihari Vajpayee, forming stable coalition governments.
• Coalition-building with regional parties allowed the BJP to govern nationally despite not having absolute majorities initially—this demonstrates tactical flexibility.

Consolidation after 1998 and organisational strengthening:

• The party professionalised election management: strong booth-level organisation, cadre training, use of data and later digital tools, and centralised campaign planning.
• Financial resources increased through diverse funding streams, allowing sustained campaigning and outreach.
• Institutional linkages with Sangh Parivar organisations (e.g., RSS, VHP, ABVP) provided grassroots reach and ideological coherence.

Role of leadership, governance and narrative (2001–2019):

• Leaders like Atal Bihari Vajpayee (consensus-based image) and Narendra Modi (strong development and leadership narrative) shaped public perception; Modi’s rise after 2001 (as Gujarat CM) and especially post-2014 gave the BJP a charismatic, centralised leadership image.
• Post-2014, the BJP combined development rhetoric (’development and good governance’) with identity politics (Hindutva themes) and welfare schemes targeted at broad voter groups, expanding its social base beyond traditional upper-caste supporters.
• Control of communication channels—extensive use of social media, narrative framing, and rapid-response messaging—helped shape public opinion and electoral mobilization.

Key strategies for consolidation:

• Social engineering: building non-traditional coalitions (non-Yadav OBCs, non-Jatav Dalits, urban middle classes).
• Alliance management: forging pre-poll and post-poll alliances through the NDA to win both national and many state contests.
• Administrative reach: converting electoral wins into long-term advantage via policy decisions, appointments, and control over local networks.
• Issue ownership: making issues like national security, cultural identity and corruption central to campaigns.

Evidence of consolidation (examples of outcomes): Clear electoral majorities in 2014 and 2019 Lok Sabha elections; sweeping state victories (for example Uttar Pradesh 2017 and 2022), and the 2019 legislative actions such as the abrogation of Article 370 (Jammu & Kashmir) which reinforced the party’s ideological commitments to its core voters.

Limits and contestation: Consolidation is not total: regional parties remain strong in many states, and issues like unemployment, agrarian distress, or major policy controversies produce political pushback and protests. Democratic institutions and an active civil society continue to check and contest policies.

Summary: The BJP’s rise and consolidation combined ideological mobilisation (Hindutva), organisational depth (RSS networks, booth-level work), strategic coalition politics (NDA), charismatic leadership, modern campaign methods, use of welfare and governance claims, and effective narrative control. These elements together transformed it from a marginal party into the principal force in contemporary Indian politics.

Fig 4 — Educational Diagram: Regionalisation of politics

What it means
Regionalisation of politics refers to the growing importance and influence of regional (state-level) parties, regional issues and identities in India’s political system. It implies a shift from a dominance of all-India national parties (especially Congress in the decades after independence) to a polity where state-based parties and sub-national identities shape election outcomes, governance and national coalitions.

Why it happened (causes)

• Decline of single-party dominance: Gradual erosion of Congress’ uniformly dominant position created space for alternatives at state level.
• Assertion of regional, linguistic and ethnic identities: Parties built around local language, culture, caste and regional pride attracted voters (e.g., parties from Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Bihar).
• Mandal and caste politics: Post-1990s rise of caste-based mobilization produced powerful regional parties (e.g., RJD, SP, JD(U)).
• Economic liberalisation and localised demands: After 1991, economic reforms and uneven development sharpened region-specific grievances and demands for state-focused policies.
• Federal decentralisation and center–state dynamics: Greater role of states in implementing policies and controlling resources increased the political salience of state governments.
• Coalition era and bargaining power: With no single party able to secure stable majorities at the Centre in the 1990s and 2000s, regional parties became kingmakers and used coalition leverage to extract benefits for their states.

How it works (dynamics)

• Regional parties concentrate resources and organisational networks within particular states, enabling high seat conversion from local support.
• They raise state-specific demands (subsidies, projects, language policy), influencing national policy through coalition bargaining or issue pressure.
• Regional leaders often become national coalition partners or ministers, increasing their ability to direct funds and shape central decisions.
• Regionalisation does not always mean separatism—most parties operate within the constitutional framework seeking greater autonomy or distributive benefits.

Consequences (positive and negative)

• Positive: Better representation of local interests, more responsive governance on state issues, checks on central domination, increased policy diversity.
• Negative: Fragmentation of national politics, unstable coalitions, policy gridlock, pork-barrel politics (exchanging national support for local concessions), occasional rise of parochialism and identity-based conflict.

Contemporary picture
From the 1990s onward regionalisation peaked during the coalition years (1996–2004 and 2004–2014) when parties like TDP, DMK, TMC, BJD, SP, RJD played central roles. Since 2014 the BJP’s national dominance reduced coalition dependence at the Centre, but regional parties continue to dominate many state governments and influence national debates (e.g., federal finance, farm laws, and citizenship laws).

Class 12 takeaway
Regionalisation means politics in India is multi-layered: national and regional actors interact constantly. Understanding India’s democracy requires looking at how state interests, identities and parties shape policy and power, not only national-level narratives.

Fig 5 — Educational Diagram: Caste and identity politics

What is caste and identity politics?

Caste in India is a historically entrenched social hierarchy that organises social relations, economic status and access to resources. Identity politics refers to political mobilisation based on group identities (caste, religion, region, language, gender) where groups seek representation, rights or resources.

How caste shapes politics

• Caste structures social networks and local negotiation: caste determines patron–client ties, candidate selection at the grassroots and mobilising capacity during elections.
• Vote-bank politics: Parties often target specific caste groups as reliable vote banks by promising policies, reservations or benefits.
• Emergence of caste-based parties: Groups that feel excluded form or back parties that directly represent their interests (e.g., BSP for Dalits; RJD for Yadavs and allies).
• Intersection with other identities: Caste interacts with class, region, religion and gender; political outcomes depend on combinations of these identities.

Major themes and dynamics

• Assertion and mobilisation: Marginalised castes have organised movements (Dalit movements, OBC mobilisation after the Mandal recommendations) demanding representation and rights.
• Reservation politics: Reservation in education, jobs and local bodies became a major political instrument to secure support and improve representation for SCs, STs and OBCs.
• Social engineering and coalition politics: Parties construct winning alliances by combining castes (e.g., combining non-Yadav OBCs, Dalits and upper castes or forming broad caste coalitions like in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh).
• Fragmentation vs. integration: While caste mobilisation has increased representation for certain groups, it has also fragmented national politics into regional and caste-based contests, complicating national-level consensus politics.

Positive and negative consequences

• Positive: Greater political representation for historically marginalised groups; expanded access to resources and public employment via reservations; increased political awareness.
• Negative: Politics of patronage and clientelism, identity polarisation, reduction of complex policy debates to identity appeals, territorialisation of conflict in some regions.

Contemporary trends

• Decline of single-axis identity politics in some areas as parties attempt cross-caste appeals (social engineering), but persistence of caste considerations in candidate choice and voting behaviour.
• Rise of assertive Dalit politics (new organisations, courts and social media) that challenge symbolic representation and demand substantive change.
• Urbanisation, education and economic change are altering caste salience for some voters, though caste remains a strong determinant in many rural areas.

Why it matters for Recent Developments in Indian Politics (Class 12)

Understanding caste and identity politics helps explain the rise of regional parties in the 1990s, the political consequences of the Mandal Commission, the shift from Congress dominance to coalition politics, and contemporary electoral strategies of national parties. It also links to debates on social justice, equality and the limits of identity-based mobilisation.

Fig 6 — Educational Diagram: Communalism and religion in politics

Definition and core idea
Communalism is the process by which religious identities are politicized and converted into tools of collective mobilisation, competition and conflict. When religion is used to shape political loyalties, policies or public discourse, it becomes part of politics. In India this takes the form of both ideological mobilisation around religious identity and the strategic use of religious issues by political actors.

Forms of communalism

• Ideological communalism: political movements that justify policy and identity primarily on a religious basis (for example, religious nationalism).
• Instrumental/political communalism: short-term electoral appeals to a religious group (vote-bank politics).
• Everyday communalism: discrimination, social exclusion and informal segregation based on religion.

Causes

• Historical and colonial legacies that hardened communal identities.
• Socio-economic inequalities and competition for resources that get framed as communal struggles.
• Political opportunism: parties and leaders mobilise religion to consolidate or polarise votes.
• Weak or biased institutions, breakdown of law-and-order, and partisan media/social media that amplify rumours and hatred.

Consequences
Communalism undermines democratic norms and the constitutional commitment to secularism. It can lead to communal violence, erosion of civil liberties of minorities, ghettoisation, long-term social fragmentation and a decline in trust in public institutions.

Constitutional and institutional response

• Constitutional guarantees: fundamental rights (equality and freedom of religion) and secularism as a basic feature of the Constitution.
• Legal measures: laws against hate speech, criminal acts and incitement to violence; election laws and Model Code of Conduct aimed at preventing communal appeals.
• Institutions and civil society: judiciary, Election Commission, police reforms, media ethics, and citizen movements play a role in checking communalisation.

Recent trends and political context (class-appropriate summary)
In recent decades religion has remained salient in Indian politics through temple-mosque controversies, debates over personal laws, citizenship-related policies with religious implications, and electoral rhetoric. While some political mobilisation around religion has been peaceful and legal, others have led to polarisation and violence. Understanding communalism requires looking at causes, actors, institutional responses and the social costs of mixing religion with partisan politics.

How to study this topic for exams

• Define communalism clearly, explain forms and causes, give balanced examples, and mention constitutional safeguards and institutional responses.
• Use a case example to illustrate causes, actions and consequences, and evaluate measures taken to reduce communal tensions.

Fig 7 — Educational Diagram: New social movements and civil society

Introduction
New social movements (NSMs) are collective actions that emerged since the 1960s and 1970s focusing on issues of identity, culture, environment, rights and quality of life rather than only on class and economic redistribution. Civil society refers to the space of voluntary associations, NGOs, social movements, professional bodies, media and community groups that act between the individual/family and the state/market.

How NSMs differ from old/classical movements

• Old movements: primarily class-based (workers, peasants), aim at economic redistribution and change through political parties and unions.
• New movements: issue- and identity-based (environment, gender, ethnicity, LGBT, human rights), emphasize autonomy from political parties and cultural change.

Key features of New Social Movements

• Issue-specific: focus on environment, gender, identity, civil liberties, consumer rights etc.
• Decentralized leadership: networks and loose coalitions rather than hierarchical organisations.
• Use of new repertoires of protest: sit-ins, symbolic actions, internet and social media campaigns, litigation and public-interest petitions.
• Non-party and non-state orientation: often critical of both the state and mainstream political parties.
• Cultural and rights-based discourse: focus on dignity, recognition, democratic participation and lifestyle/quality of life concerns.

Causes / Preconditions

• Economic liberalisation and market reforms creating new grievances and new actors.
• Expansion of education, media and communication technologies.
• Global networks and transnational norms (environmentalism, human rights).
• Weak or inadequate state response to social problems, creating space for collective action.

Strategies and Tactics

• Public demonstrations, sit-ins, dharnas and rallies.
• Use of legal tools — PILs and court litigation.
• Media campaigns and social media mobilization.
• Alliances with NGOs, intellectuals, celebrity endorsements and international organisations.
• Alternative institutions (community schools, health camps, relief networks).

Role of Civil Society

• Aggregation and articulation of interests not represented by formal politics.
• Watchdog functions: exposing corruption, human rights abuses and policy failures.
• Service delivery: NGOs, charities and grassroots organisations fill gaps in welfare and disaster relief.
• Deliberative arena: creating spaces for public debate, awareness building and capacity development.
• Bridging local issues with national/international platforms.

Outcomes and Impact

• Policy changes and laws (e.g., legal reforms after mass protests).
• Heightened public awareness and shift in public discourse (gender sensitivity, environmental norms).
• Institutional innovations (commissions, oversight bodies, RTI mechanisms).
• Sometimes backlash: repression, co-optation by political parties, or fragmentation.

Limitations and Challenges

• Urban and class bias – many NSMs originate in urban, educated circles and may not represent rural poor.
• Resource constraints – funding, organisational capacity and sustainability are issues.
• Risk of elite capture and co-optation by political actors or donors.
• State repression and legal restrictions on NGOs can limit effectiveness.

Conclusion
New social movements and a vibrant civil society are important for deepening democracy in India: they expand the agenda beyond party politics, hold authorities accountable, and create new rights and protections. However, their strengths are tempered by inequalities in reach, resources and occasional co-optation.

Fig 8 — Educational Diagram: Naxalism and left-wing extremism

Definition: Naxalism/left-wing extremism refers to an armed movement inspired by Maoist ideology that seeks to overthrow the state by protracted people's war. It began as a peasant uprising and evolved into organised insurgency, mostly in under-developed rural and forested areas of India.

Origin and history (brief): The movement began with the Naxalbari uprising in a village in West Bengal in 1967. Early leaders included Kanu Sanyal and Charu Majumdar. Over decades several splinter groups emerged; key organisational consolidation was the formation of the Communist Party of India (Maoist) in 2004 (merger of People’s War Group and Maoist Communist Centre).

Ideology and objectives: The movement draws on Marxism–Leninism–Maoism. It targets landlords, state institutions and corporate projects seen as exploitative, aiming to build parallel power structures and ultimately replace the Indian state with a communist order through armed struggle.

Primary causes (structural and proximate):

• Deep socio-economic inequalities: landlessness, poverty and unemployment in tribal and rural areas.
• Under-development: poor infrastructure, lack of services and limited access to education and health.
• Displacement and resource conflicts: mining, dams and corporate projects displacing tribals without adequate rehabilitation.
• Governance deficits and rights violations: neglect, corruption, police excesses and weak grievance redressal.
• Ideological mobilisation and organisational networks that exploit local grievances.

Tactics used by extremists: guerrilla ambushes on security forces, hit-and-run attacks, sabotage of infrastructure, extortion ("revolutionary tax"), assassinations of local leaders, and attempts to set up parallel administrative structures.

Impact on society and polity:

• Loss of lives and security personnel casualties; displacement of civilians.
• Economic costs: delay/cancellation of development projects, higher security expenditure, investor uncertainty in affected regions.
• Political outcome: polarisation, emergence of local anti-Naxal vigilante groups, and contested state responses balancing force with development.

State response and strategies:

• Security operations (central and state forces; coordinated commands). Examples include intensified counter-insurgency operations since late 2000s.
• Developmental and welfare measures: road, schools, PDS strengthening, livelihood programs.
• Reform and legal measures: implementation of laws like the Forest Rights Act (2006) to address tribal rights, surrender and rehabilitation schemes for cadres.
• Political engagement: local-level dialogue, decentralisation (panchayats), and grievance redressal initiatives.

Major challenges: Over-reliance on force without addressing root causes; fragile implementation of land and forest rights; coordination problems between security, development and civil administration; impact on civilians caught between insurgents and security forces.

Status and trends (summary): Over the last decade the intensity of violence has declined in many areas due to sustained security operations and focused development efforts, but the problem persists in pockets known as the "Red Corridor" where structural neglect and resource conflicts remain.

Class 12 perspective (what to remember): Understand causes (economic, social, political), outcomes (security threat, development impact) and policy options (security + development + rights + political dialogue). Use case studies (Naxalbari origin, CPI (Maoist) formation, major attacks and counter-insurgency operations) to illustrate the interplay between governance failure and insurgency.

Fig 9 — Educational Diagram: Corruption, accountability and anti-corruption measures

What is corruption? Corruption is the misuse of public office or power for private gain. It can be petty (bribes to access services), grand (large-scale procurement or allocation scams) or political (illegal funding, patronage).

Causes of corruption

• Excessive discretion in officials' hands combined with lack of transparency.
• Weak institutions and slow judicial processes, creating impunity.
• Poverty and low public sector pay that incentivise informal payments.
• Opaque political finance and weak party regulation.
• Cultural norms tolerating gift-exchange and clientelism.

Consequences

• Distorts public policy and resource allocation: funds diverted from health, education and infrastructure.
• Undermines trust in government and democratic legitimacy.
• Reduces economic efficiency and foreign investment.
• Reinforces inequality — the poor lose access to basic services.

Accountability — meaning and mechanisms

Accountability means that public officials must answer for their decisions and can be sanctioned for wrongdoing. Key mechanisms:

• Vertical accountability: elections and political competition make governments answerable to voters.
• Horizontal accountability: independent institutions (courts, auditor, anti-corruption agencies) that check executive power.
• Social accountability: civil society, media, citizens using tools (RTI, social audits, protests) to demand answers.

Indian anti‑corruption architecture and measures

• Legal and institutional: Central institutions (CBI, Central Vigilance Commission), the Comptroller & Auditor General (CAG), Election Commission, state Lokayuktas.
• Legislation: Right to Information (RTI) Act, Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, Prevention of Corruption Act and its amendments, laws on electoral finance and disclosure.
• Administrative reforms: e‑governance, online procurement, Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT), digitised public services to reduce face‑to‑face contact.
• Civil society and media oversight: investigative journalism, RTI-driven investigations, social movements (e.g., anti‑corruption campaigns).
• Procedural tools: citizen charters, social audits (MGNREGA), public grievance redress portals, whistleblower protections.

How anti‑corruption measures work — strengths and limits

• Transparency (RTI, open data) reduces informational advantage and enables monitoring; however, misuse or weakening of transparency laws limits impact.
• Independent investigation and prosecution bodies can deter corruption, but political interference and slow trials reduce effectiveness.
• Technological fixes (DBT, e‑procurement) cut leakages but are limited by digital exclusion and implementation gaps.
• Public mobilization (protests, watchdog reporting) raises political cost of corruption — but long‑term institutionalisation is required for durable change.

Recent developments in India (summary)

• Important enactments and reforms have strengthened tools (RTI, Lokpal, amendments to anti‑corruption laws); digital delivery and DBT have reduced some leakages.
• High‑profile exposures (CAG reports, media investigations) and judicial interventions have pushed reforms, yet challenges remain: enforcement, conviction delays, and political capture.

Practical steps to improve accountability

• Strengthen independence of oversight institutions and ensure timely investigations and trials.
• Expand transparency (open budgets, procurement portals) and protect whistleblowers and RTI users.
• Reform political finance and enforce disclosure of candidate assets and campaign spending.
• Improve public administration through better pay, training, and ethical codes; use technology to reduce discretion.
• Empower citizens via civic education and easier grievance redressal.

Bottom line: Tackling corruption requires a mix of legal rules, strong institutions, technological delivery, political will, and civic engagement. Measures reduce opportunities and increase the likelihood that wrongdoing is detected and punished.

Fig 10 — Educational Diagram: Judicial activism and rights expansion

Judicial activism and rights expansion

Judicial activism refers to the proactive role played by courts, especially the Supreme Court and high courts, in interpreting the Constitution and laws to protect rights, fill policy gaps, and correct injustices — often going beyond narrow legal questions to address social, economic and political issues. In India, judicial activism has been a major force in expanding the scope of fundamental rights and in making state institutions accountable.

Key features:

• Broad interpretation of rights: The courts read fundamental rights expansively (for example, interpreting the right to life to include dignity, livelihood, health and environment).
• Public Interest Litigation (PIL): Allows socially concerned citizens, NGOs or groups to approach courts on behalf of disadvantaged sections, enabling access to justice for those who cannot directly approach courts.
• Suo motu action: Courts take notice of matters on their own when public interest or constitutional violations are evident.
• Remedial creativity: Courts issue directions, guidelines, and monitoring mechanisms (for example, committees) to implement rights and policies.
• Doctrine use: Use of doctrines like basic structure, reading down, reading in, and purposive interpretation to protect constitutional values.

Impact on rights expansion:

• Transformative expansion of civil and political rights (e.g., free speech, fair trial, privacy).
• Recognition and enforcement of socio-economic rights through Article 21 (right to life with dignity) — including livelihood, health, education, environment and shelter.
• Protection of vulnerable groups — women, children, minorities, LGBT persons and marginalized communities — through rights-based rulings and guidelines.

Balance and criticisms:

• Supporters: Judicial activism fills gaps where the legislature or executive fail, protects minorities and upholds constitutional morality.
• Critics: Courts may overstep democratic mandate, make policy decisions without expertise or accountability, and upset separation of powers.
• Modern practice tries to balance activism with judicial restraint — courts often ask the government to take policy steps or issue time-bound directions rather than frame detailed policy themselves.

How it works (process sketch):

1. Petition/PIL or suo motu notice → court admits matter.
2. Court frames questions of law and issues notices to respondents (government, agencies).
3. Courts may appoint committees, issue interim directions, ask for reports and hold hearings.
4. Final judgment may interpret rights broadly, issue guidelines or direct legislative/executive action; courts sometimes monitor implementation.

Conclusion: Judicial activism has been central to rights expansion in India by using constitutional interpretation, PIL mechanisms and creative remedies. It remains a dynamic tool that must be exercised with sensitivity to democratic processes and institutional roles.

Fig 11 — Educational Diagram: Role of media and information technology

Definition & context: The role of media and information technology (IT) in Indian politics refers to how traditional media (newspapers, radio, TV) and digital media (social networks, messaging apps, websites, data analytics) shape political communication, public opinion, political mobilization, accountability and governance. Since the 1990s and especially after 2008–2014, IT has transformed political campaigns, news cycles, citizen engagement and policy debates in India.

Key roles and functions

• Information and agenda-setting: Media decide which issues receive attention; IT speeds agenda-setting through viral content and trending hashtags.
• Political communication and campaigning: Parties use social media, targeted ads, SMS/WhatsApp blasts and data analytics to reach voters directly and tailor messages.
• Mobilization and participation: IT lowers transaction costs for protesters, volunteers and voters — online petitions, fundraising, event coordination and digital volunteers.
• Watchdog and accountability: Investigative journalism, sting operations, and citizen journalism expose corruption and poor governance; social media amplifies such exposes rapidly.
• Opinion formation and polarization: Algorithms and filter bubbles can reinforce existing views and contribute to political polarization and selective exposure.
• Misinformation and disinformation: Rapid spread of fake news (via forwarding, memes, deepfakes) can distort public debate and cause real-world harm.
• Surveillance, privacy and regulation: State and non-state actors can use digital tools for surveillance, while governments frame rules (e.g., IT Rules) to regulate platforms and online speech.

Positive impacts

• Broader access to information and multiple perspectives, especially for youth and urban users.
• Faster mobilization for social causes (campaigns, relief work) and easier volunteer coordination.
• Greater accountability: leaks, investigative reports and public pressure can force policy changes.
• Cost-effective campaigning enabling smaller actors and regional issues to gain visibility.

Negative impacts and challenges

• Fake news, rumours and communal misinformation spread quickly on closed networks (e.g., WhatsApp).
• Echo chambers and targeted political advertising can manipulate voters and reduce shared facts.
• Digital divide: unequal internet access means benefits are uneven (urban, young, affluent bias).
• Commercial pressures on 24x7 news channels create sensationalism and horse-race politics rather than policy debates.
• Privacy concerns and misuse of data (surveillance, unauthorized tracking, alleged spyware cases).
• Regulatory trade-offs between freedom of speech and curbing harmful content; platform liability debates.

Regulatory & institutional responses

• Amendments and rules under the Information Technology Act (e.g., Intermediary Guidelines & Digital Media Ethics Code) aiming to make platforms accountable.
• Election Commission guidelines on digital campaigning, and attempts to regulate paid political advertising and transparency in funding (ongoing debates).
• Growth of fact-checking organizations, media literacy campaigns and civil-society efforts to counter misinformation.

Conclusion: Media and IT are now central to Indian politics — they democratize information and mobilize citizens but also create new risks (misinformation, polarization, surveillance). Policy responses and citizen media literacy will shape whether IT strengthens or undermines democratic politics.

Fig 12 — Educational Diagram: Electoral politics and reforms

What the topic covers
Electoral politics and reforms examines how elections are conducted in India, the problems that afflict electoral competition, the legal and institutional mechanisms that regulate elections, and the reforms proposed or adopted to make elections free, fair and representative.

Key features of electoral politics in India

• Multiparty competition at national and state levels with regional parties playing a major role.
• First-past-the-post (FPTP) single-member constituencies decide winners.
• Role of money, muscle power and social identities (caste, religion) in shaping outcomes.
• Regulation and management of elections by the Election Commission of India (ECI).

Main problems

• Criminalization of politics: candidates with criminal cases contest and often win.
• Unregulated electoral finance: large untransparent donations and high campaign spending.
• Money and inducement distorting voter choice.
• Defections and political horse-trading undermining stability and voters’ mandate.
• Low or unequal voter turnout across regions and groups.
• Mis/disinformation and misuse of media or social media during campaigns.

Major reforms and institutional responses

• Legal measures
  • Anti-defection law (Tenth Schedule) — disqualifies elected members who defect from the party on whose symbol they were elected, with some exceptions for mergers.
  • Stricter disqualification rules: judicial interventions have held that elected representatives convicted of certain crimes lose membership immediately (strengthening of Representation of the People Act effects).
  • Mandatory disclosure of candidate affidavits — criminal cases, assets and education must be declared at nomination.
• Electoral technology
  • Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) to speed voting and counting and reduce ballot-box fraud.
  • Voter-verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) introduced to provide a paper record of each EVM vote for verification and audits; courts have directed counting of VVPAT slips in random machines for confidence-building.
• Transparency and voter choice
  • NOTA (None of the Above) — judicially created option allowing voters to reject all candidates as a formal protest vote.
  • Efforts by watchdogs (e.g., ADR) to publicize candidates’ criminal records and assets to inform voters.
• Finance and donations
  • Debates and policy proposals on state funding of elections, caps on campaign spending, and mandatory disclosure of donations to political parties to reduce opaque money flows.
• Election Commission actions
  • Model Code of Conduct (MCC) enforced during elections to restrict misuse of official machinery and hate speech; monitoring of campaign spending; use of observers and video monitoring at critical polling stations.

Effect of reforms
Some reforms (EVMs, VVPAT, affidavits, anti-defection law) have improved aspects of electoral integrity and transparency. However, challenges remain: money and opaque donations, criminalization, and political practices that subvert voters’ choices continue to demand legislative and administrative measures.

Future reform possibilities

• State funding of elections or partial funding tied to disclosure.
• Stronger ceiling and independent audit of campaign expenditures.
• Tightening anti-defection provisions and strengthening party discipline through internal democracy.
• Electoral roll improvement and measures to boost turnout among marginalised groups.
• Consideration of institutional innovations — recall, simultaneous elections, or proportional representation elements — after wide public debate.

Summary
Electoral politics in India is competitive and pluralistic but faces deficits in money, criminality and transparency. Reforms have been partially successful; sustained improvement requires legal change, administrative vigilance by the Election Commission, technological safeguards, and informed voter participation.

Fig 13 — Educational Diagram: Political parties and organisation

What are political parties?
Political parties are organised groups that seek to gain and exercise political power within government by putting forward candidates for elections, forming governments, and influencing public policy. They aggregate interests, recruit leadership, formulate programmes, mobilise voters and provide organised opposition.

Organisation — levels and structure

• Levels: national (central working committee / national executive / parliamentary party), state (state committee / legislature party), district, block/taluka and booth-level units. Party organisations also include wings: youth, women, labour, peasants, and professional cells.
• Typical organs: President/Chairperson, Parliamentary Party Leader, Politburo/Working Committee/Executive, General Council/Convention, State and District Committees, Local office-bearers and cadres.
• Functions of each level: policy formulation and strategy at the top, election management at state/district/booth level, voter mobilisation and cadre work at the grassroots.

Types of party organisation

• Mass parties: broad membership base and local networks (example historically: Indian National Congress).
• Cadre parties: disciplined, ideologically cohesive, controlled by organised cadre (example: CPI-M in its heyday).
• Leader-centred or personalist parties: revolve around a dominant leader or family (examples: many regional parties, sometimes Congress or BJP leaders at state level; more extreme in some regional outfits).
• Electoral-professional parties: focus mainly on electioneering, depend on consultants/media and short-term mobilisation (newer urban parties such as AAP to an extent).

Internal democracy and accountability
Internal democracy refers to open leadership contests, transparency in candidate selection, and accountability of office-bearers. In India, many parties face criticism for centralised decision-making, dynastic control and top-down candidate selection. Institutional mechanisms (primaries, internal elections) are limited in most parties.

Legal and procedural framework

• Recognition and symbols: Election Commission of India (ECI) recognises national and state parties based on electoral performance and awards exclusive symbols.
• Regulation: Representation of the People Act, 1951; anti-defection law (Tenth Schedule) controls switching of parties by elected members.
• Funding: party funding has evolved — state grants, donations, corporate funding and controversial instruments like electoral bonds; transparency and regulation remain contentious issues.

Functions of political parties

• Select and nominate candidates for elections.
• Form government and opposition; implement policies and hold government accountable.
• Aggregate social interests and articulate policy choices.
• Mobilise voters, run election campaigns and educate citizens politically.

Recent developments in India (key trends)

• Decline of Congress as a pan-India dominant party and rise of the BJP as a national party with strong central leadership and organisational penetration across states.
• Regionalisation and coalition politics: strong regional parties (DMK, TMC, BJD, TRS/now BRS, SP, BSP, AIDMK earlier, etc.) continue to shape state politics and sometimes national coalitions.
• Leader-centred politics and personality-driven campaigns: emphasis on charismatic leadership and media spectacle.
• Organisational modernisation: use of social media, data analytics, booth-level micro-management (BJP’s booth committees and IT-driven outreach are an example).
• Issues of internal democracy and financing: growing concerns about lack of intra-party democracy and opaque funding (push for state funding and reform continues to be debated).
• Fragmentation and realignment: frequent splits, mergers and new party formations, often before elections, affecting coalition arithmetic.

Challenges for party organisation in India

• Weak internal democracy and centralisation of power.
• Dependence on money and muscle for electoral success.
• Patronage networks and vote-bank consolidation along caste, religion and regional lines.
• Legal and transparency gaps in funding and candidate selection.

Why organisation matters for democracy
A well-organised party links citizens to government, disciplines elected representatives, provides stable platforms for policy and prevents personalism. Conversely, weak organisation can lead to factionalism, corruption and erosion of programmatic politics.

Closing summary
Political parties in India are multi-layered organisations performing multiple functions — recruitment, representation, policy formulation and governance. Recent decades have seen greater centralisation, professionalisation of campaign management, continuing regional strength and ongoing debates about funding and internal democracy. Strengthening internal democracy, transparency in finance and grassroots organisational health are central to improving party performance and democratic quality.

Fig 14 — Educational Diagram: Centre–state relations and federalism

What it is: Centre–state relations are the constitutional, political, administrative and fiscal links between the Union (Centre) and the States in India. Federalism is a system of government in which powers are divided between a central authority and constituent units. India is a federal polity with strong unitary features (often called quasi‑federal).

Constitutional basis:

• Division of powers: Article 246 and the Seventh Schedule (Union List, State List, Concurrent List) allocate legislative powers.
• Administrative relations: Articles 256–263 (responsibility of states to carry out laws of Parliament, union control over state administration in certain situations).
• Financial relations: Article 268–293 deal with distribution of taxes, duties and grants; Article 280 sets up the Finance Commission.
• Emergency provisions: Articles 352 (national emergency), 356 (State Emergency/President’s Rule) and 360 (financial emergency) alter centre–state balance in emergencies.

Features of Indian federalism:

• Written Constitution and clear division of powers (federal feature).
• Supremacy of the Constitution and a single integrated judiciary with the Supreme Court (federal feature).
• Strong Centre: residuary powers with Centre, single citizenship, All‑India Services, and emergency powers (unitary features).
• Asymmetry: different states/UTs may have different powers (e.g., Article 370 earlier; special provisions like Article 371).

Mechanisms for cooperation and dispute resolution:

• Inter‑State Council (Article 263) and Zonal Councils — promote coordination and settle inter‑state disputes.
• Finance Commission (Article 280) — recommends tax devolution and grants to states every five years.
• Supreme Court — adjudicates disputes between Centre and states or between states.
• Commissions and committees — Sarkaria Commission (1983), Punchhi Commission (2007) reviewed Centre–state relations and suggested reforms.

Key contemporary developments (examples):

• Goods and Services Tax (GST, 2017) — major reform in fiscal federalism: replaced many Centre and State taxes by a dual GST (CGST + SGST) with IGST for inter‑state trade and a GST Council for joint decision making.
• NITI Aayog (2015) replaced the Planning Commission — changed centre–state planning from a top‑down model to a more cooperative, state‑centric approach.
• 14th Finance Commission (implemented in 2015) increased states' share in central divisible pool from 32% to 42%, strengthening state finances through devolution.
• Inter‑state water disputes (e.g., Cauvery) show the role of tribunals and the Supreme Court in resolving conflicts between states.

Principles and tensions: The constitutional design seeks a balance between unity and diversity. Tensions arise over control of resources, differing political parties in Centre and states, administrative control (role of Governors), and use of emergency provisions. Recent reforms (GST, Finance Commission transfers, cooperative institutions) aim to strengthen cooperative federalism, but debates continue over autonomy vs central oversight.

Why it matters: Centre–state relations determine policy implementation (health, education, law & order), fiscal health of states, and democratic accountability. Effective federalism promotes local autonomy, efficient resource use and political stability.

Fig 15 — Educational Diagram: Social welfare policies and welfare politics

Definition and purpose: Social welfare policies are government measures designed to improve citizens' well-being by reducing poverty, providing basic services (food, health, education, housing), and protecting vulnerable groups. Welfare politics refers to how these policies are created, distributed and contested in political life — including electoral incentives, party strategies, clientelism and debates over universality vs targeting.

Key objectives: poverty reduction, social security, redistribution of resources, equal access to basic services, social inclusion of disadvantaged communities.

Instruments of welfare policy: direct cash transfers, subsidies, public provision of services (schools, hospitals), employment guarantees, food/security programs, insurance and pensions, tax benefits, and regulation.

Types: universal (available to all) vs targeted (only eligible groups); in-kind (food, housing) vs cash transfers; short-term (relief) vs long-term (human capital investment).

Implementation chain: policy design → budget allocation → administrative delivery (national/state/local) → beneficiary identification → monitoring and grievance redress → evaluation. Administrative capacity, IT systems (Aadhaar/DBT), and local governance (Panchayats/municipalities) matter for outcomes.

Common problems: leakages and corruption, inclusion and exclusion errors (eligible left out or ineligible included), poor targeting, weak monitoring, fiscal sustainability, intergovernmental coordination, and political manipulation (vote-buying or populist freebies).

Welfare politics — major dynamics:

• Electoral incentive: Parties use welfare promises (cash transfers, subsidies, freebies) to gain votes — can lead to clientelism or broad-based reforms.
• Populism vs reform: Short-term freebies win votes but may undermine fiscal health; structural reforms (universal education, health investment) are long-term but politically costly.
• Identity and redistribution: Caste, religion, region and gender shape demand and distribution of welfare benefits; reservation and targeted schemes are politically salient.
• Federal politics: State vs central roles create variations across India — some state governments expand welfare (free electricity, food), others focus on targeted DBT.
• Technology and transparency: Digital payments (DBT), biometric ID (Aadhaar), and public grievance portals can reduce leakages but raise privacy and exclusion concerns.

Examples of Indian welfare policies: Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) for wage employment; Public Distribution System (PDS) and National Food Security Act for food; Mid-Day Meal for school nutrition; National Health Mission for primary health; Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana for housing; Jan Dhan financial inclusion and Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) for cash subsidies.

Evaluation and reforms: Effective welfare systems combine good targeting, administrative capacity, adequate funding, transparency, citizen participation and regular evaluation (impact assessments). Reforms often aim to reduce leakages (DBT), expand coverage (food security acts), or improve quality (health and education investments).

Conclusion: Social welfare policies are central to reducing inequality and improving human development. Welfare politics shapes what is delivered and to whom — balancing political incentives, fiscal constraints and administrative capacity determines success.

Fig 16 — Educational Diagram: Security challenges and terrorism

Definition and scope: Security challenges refer to threats that endanger a country's territorial integrity, political stability, economic life and social order. Terrorism is the deliberate use of violence by non-state actors to create fear, achieve political aims and coerce governments or societies.

Types of security challenges:

• Internal — insurgency, left-wing extremism (Naxalism), communal violence, organized crime, separatist movements.
• External — cross-border terrorism, interstate conflict, border incursions, conventional military threats.
• Non-traditional — cyberattacks, economic coercion, energy insecurity, environmental disasters, pandemics.

Nature of terrorism: Terrorism pursues political or ideological goals using violence and intimidation. Tactics include bombings, armed assaults, suicide attacks, hostage-taking, targeted killings, cyber-terrorism and use of improvised explosive devices. Motivations often combine grievance (political, economic or social), ideology, identity politics and external support.

Impact: Human loss and trauma, economic disruption (investment, tourism), political polarization, erosion of civil liberties (increased surveillance, stricter laws), strain on state resources and foreign relations.

Indian context — major features: India faces diverse challenges: prolonged left-wing extremism in the central and eastern 'Red Corridor', separatist and ethnic insurgencies in parts of the Northeast, persistent cross-border terrorism affecting Jammu & Kashmir, organized crime and communal tensions in urban centres, and rising cyber and radicalisation threats. Security challenges are both asymmetric (terrorism, insurgency) and conventional (border standoffs).

State responses and instruments: Constitutional and legal framework, central agencies (Ministry of Home Affairs, Intelligence Bureau, Research & Analysis Wing, National Investigation Agency), security forces (CRPF, BSF, NSG, army), laws (Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act — UAPA), policing reforms, modernization of coastal and border security, development & rehabilitation programs (for areas affected by insurgency), international cooperation (sharing intelligence, FATF compliance) and counter-radicalisation initiatives.

Challenges in policy and practice: Need for better police reforms and coordination between centre and states; balancing security measures with human rights and democratic norms; addressing root causes (poverty, governance deficits, social exclusion); adapting to changing tactics (lone-wolf attacks, online recruitment, use of small drones).

Way forward: Integrated approach combining intelligence-led security operations, judicial and legal effectiveness, socio-economic development in affected areas, community policing, cyber-security capacity building and sustained international cooperation.

Fig 17 — Educational Diagram: Farmers' movements and agrarian issues

Overview: Agrarian issues refer to structural, economic and social problems faced by agricultural producers — small and marginal farmers, agricultural labourers and tenant cultivators. Farmers' movements are collective actions — protests, strikes, local agitations or mass mobilisations — that emerge to demand relief, policy change or protection of agrarian rights.

Main agrarian problems

• Small and fragmented landholdings: declining average farm size reduces economies of scale and investment capacity.
• Low productivity and technology gaps: inadequate irrigation, poor extension services and low mechanisation.
• Price volatility and market access problems: farm incomes fluctuate due to unstable prices, lack of storage and weak value chains.
• High input costs and rising indebtedness: seeds, fertilisers and credit costs increase while farm prices lag, pushing many into informal debt.
• Vulnerability to climatic shocks: droughts, floods and pests cause crop failure and income loss.
• Landlessness and insecure tenure: tenant farmers and sharecroppers lack security and incentives to invest.
• Weak public support: limited procurement, imperfect Minimum Support Price (MSP) coverage and low public investment in agriculture.

Why farmers' movements arise

• Immediate economic distress (crop failure, unpaid dues, debt) creates grievances.
• Policy threats (land acquisition, market liberalisation perceived as favouring corporates) trigger collective action.
• Mobilisation by unions, civil society and political organisations turns local grievances into sustained movements.

Types and features of movements

• Local and issue-specific (e.g., unpaid sugarcane arrears, irrigation demands).
• Regional mass movements (e.g., protests linked to land acquisition or large policy changes).
• National-level mobilisations (e.g., all-India protests against major agricultural laws).
• Features include prolonged sit-ins, road blockades, negotiation via unions, periodic strikes (bandhs), and symbolic actions (tractors rallies, demonstrations).

Policy responses and debates

• Protective measures: MSP, public procurement for foodgrains, public distribution system.
• Risk management: crop insurance schemes (e.g., Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana).
• Income support and credit: direct income transfers (PM-KISAN), formal institutional credit & debt waivers.
• Structural reforms debated: land consolidation, marketing reforms, contract farming and better supply chains versus fear of corporatisation and loss of MSP safeguards.

Contemporary significance: Agriculture still employs a large share of workforce while contributing a declining share of GDP. This structural imbalance — many dependent on agriculture but low relative incomes — makes farmers' issues politically prominent and socially sensitive. Effective policy needs a mix of short-term relief (credit, price support) and long-term reforms (infrastructure, market access, diversification).

Study tips: When answering exam questions, explain causes, describe the movement/event, give government response, and evaluate outcomes (short-term relief vs. long-term structural change).

Fig 18 — Educational Diagram: Constitutional and legislative controversies

What the topic covers
Constitutional and legislative controversies are disputes that arise when constitutional text, legislative action or executive practice appear to conflict with constitutional principles, judicial interpretations or democratic norms. These controversies may concern the powers of different organs of the state (legislature, executive, judiciary), fundamental rights, federal relations, or the validity and effect of laws and amendments.

Key themes

• Basic Structure v. Parliamentary supremacy — Conflict over whether Parliament can amend any part of the Constitution or whether certain core features (basic structure) are inviolable.
• Judicial review and judicial independence — Disputes about the scope of the courts to strike down laws, and controversies on appointment and accountability of judges.
• Centre–state federal disputes — Use/misuse of Article 356 (state president's rule), distribution of legislative/financial powers, and state autonomy.
• Fundamental rights v. legislative action — When laws or policies limit rights such as equality, liberty or privacy; often resolved by the courts balancing competing interests.
• Ordinances, emergency powers and executive action — Controversies over the exceptional or repeated use of executive instruments to make law or suspend protections.

How controversies arise

• Parliament or state legislature passes an Act or amends the Constitution.
• Executive actions (ordinances, proclamations of emergency, use of governor's powers) produce effects challenged as unconstitutional.
• Court cases are filed invoking fundamental rights or constitutional clauses; judiciary issues interpretation or strikes down the law.
• Political responses (new amendments, executive measures) sometimes follow, creating further dispute.

Typical consequences: Judicial pronouncements that set precedents (e.g., striking down an amendment or law), legislative counter-measures (new amendments), policy reversals, and political mobilization. These controversies shape constitutional doctrine, institutional balance and public understanding of rights.

Important safeguards and mechanisms

• Judicial review (Supreme Court/High Courts).
• Doctrine of basic structure limiting amendments.
• Federal adjudication and Centre–State dispute resolution (Article 131 and related mechanisms).
• Constitutional conventions, parliamentary debate, public opinion and free media.

Fig 19 — Educational Diagram: Globalisation and foreign-policy impacts on domestic politics

Definition & scope
Globalisation refers to increasing economic, political and cultural interdependence among countries (trade, investment, information flows, migration, ideas). Foreign policy refers to a state's external relations and diplomacy. Both shape domestic politics by changing incentives, constraints and public perceptions.

Channels of impact

• Economic channels: Trade liberalisation, foreign direct investment (FDI), conditionalities from international lenders, and global supply chains influence employment, sectoral growth, prices and state revenues — all central political issues.
• Institutional/legal channels: Commitments to WTO rules, investment treaties and human-rights regimes constrain policy choices and can shift policy-making from national parliaments to courts and international adjudication.
• Political/diplomatic channels: Alliances, security partnerships, sanctions or diplomatic crises shape national security debates, electoral rhetoric and coalition-building.
• Cultural/ideational channels: Global media, migration and diaspora politics spread ideas and influence identity politics, social movements and public opinion.

How globalisation affects domestic politics (mechanisms)

• Policy constraints and choices: Governments often adjust taxes, subsidies, labour rules and industrial policy to attract investment or comply with international rules — limiting some domestic policy options.
• Winners and losers: Openness creates beneficiaries (exporting sectors, urban professionals) and vulnerable groups (small farmers, unskilled workers). This redistributes political support and fuels new interest groups and protests.
• Electoral politics and party strategy: Parties reframe economic reforms and foreign ties as competence or as threats to sovereignty/identity; populist responses can arise when globalisation’s costs are politically salient.
• State capacity and governance: Increased cross-border flows require regulatory adaptation, sometimes strengthening technocratic institutions (finance ministries, central banks) and judicial review.
• Information and mobilization: Global media and social networks accelerate issue salience, allowing transnational advocacy (environmental, human rights) to influence domestic debates.

How foreign policy events affect domestic politics

• Rallying-around-the-flag: External crises (wars, terror attacks, diplomatic confrontations) often increase short-term support for incumbent leaders and shift public focus to security.
• Issue salience shift: Successful diplomacy (trade deals, strategic partnerships) can become electoral assets; failures or perceived threats can hurt governments.
• Coalition dynamics: Foreign-policy choices (alignments, defense pacts) can change coalition configurations, especially in multi-party systems where regional/ideological parties differ on foreign ties.
• Legal and budgetary consequences: Defence spending, treaty obligations and sanctions can reallocate resources, affecting domestic welfare policies and political debates.

Two-way relationship
Domestic political structures and public opinion also shape foreign policy: electoral incentives, interest-group pressure (business lobbies, ethnic diasporas), and media influence drive foreign-policy choices. Thus globalisation and foreign policy interact with domestic politics in a continuous feedback loop.

Implications for India (brief)
In India, economic liberalisation (1991 onward) opened markets and shifted politics toward growth-and-reform debates, created new constituencies (IT, services, urban middle class), and provoked resistance from agrarian and small-scale sectors. Foreign-policy milestones (e.g., nuclear tests, Indo-US engagements, regional security incidents) have repeatedly affected government credibility, electoral narratives and coalition politics.

Key takeaways
Globalisation and foreign policy influence domestic politics by changing economic interests, constraining policy choices, altering public opinion and reshaping party strategies. Political responses vary: adaptation, compensation, protectionism, or identity-based mobilisation.

Fig 20 — Educational Diagram: Criminalisation and money in politics

What it means
Criminalisation of politics refers to the increasing presence and influence of persons with criminal antecedents (charges for serious offences) in elected bodies. "Money in politics" means the use of large amounts of money to influence electoral outcomes — through campaign spending, donations, vote‑buying, or financing muscle power.

How they operate
Candidates or parties use financial resources and criminal networks to win elections. Money buys campaign infrastructure, advertising, logistics and sometimes direct voter inducements (gifts or cash). Muscle power — intimidation, booth capture, use of criminal gangs — helps convert money into votes by coercing or manipulating the electoral process.

Why this happens (root causes)

• High cost of modern electoral campaigns (travel, advertising, large teams).
• Weak party internal democracy and lack of merit‑based candidate selection; winnability becomes the main criterion.
• Slow criminal justice system: long trials, delays and low conviction rates reduce disincentives.
• Poverty and clientelism: voters in poor areas can be vulnerable to short‑term monetary inducements.
• Opaque political funding (anonymous donations, weak disclosure rules) that allows unaccounted money to flow.

Consequences

• Erosion of public trust and legitimacy of democratic institutions.
• Policy capture: decision‑making shaped by financiers or criminal interests rather than public good.
• Impaired law enforcement and selective justice when politicians influence agencies.
• Distorted priorities — governance focused on protecting patronage networks, not welfare.

Legal framework and institutional responses

• Representation of the People Act and election laws set rules on disqualification (conviction leads to disqualification), expenditure limits and mandatory disclosure of assets and criminal cases in affidavits.
• The Election Commission of India enforces filing of affidavits and tracks candidate expenditure; civil society groups (e.g., ADR) monitor and publish data on criminal antecedents and assets of candidates.
• Judicial interventions: courts have ordered greater transparency and have ruled against allowing convicted legislators to continue in office in many instances (landmark judgments have strengthened disqualification rules and disclosure norms).
• Recent policy debates include the Electoral Bonds scheme (introduced in 2018) which critics say reduces transparency by allowing anonymous donations; the scheme has been subject to legal challenges and public debate.

Reforms and measures to check the problem

• Stricter candidate screening by parties and internal democracy to discourage criminal candidates.
• Faster prosecution and special courts for election‑related offences to reduce delays and impunity.
• Greater transparency in political funding — full public disclosure of donors and donations, scrutiny of electoral bonds.
• State funding of elections or matching public funding to reduce dependence on private money.
• Tight enforcement of expenditure limits and real‑time monitoring of campaign spending.

Class‑12 perspective — key takeaways
Criminalisation and money power undermine democratic values and equality of opportunity in politics. Understanding causes, consequences and remedies helps evaluate contemporary reforms and judicial interventions discussed in the chapter "Recent Developments in Indian Politics." Civil society monitoring, media scrutiny and institutional reforms are essential to reduce the twin problem of criminalisation and money in politics.