Overview
The final chapter of the book is deliberately different from the others: it is less a body of information than a method of thinking, and it asks the student to do the work rather than memorise a conclusion. It begins by distinguishing a challenge from an ordinary problem. A challenge is a difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for progress, and one that is significant - a difficulty a person or a country can overcome to move ahead. Different countries face different challenges, and the chapter sorts them into three broad kinds. The foundational challenge is faced by countries that are not yet democratic at all - about a quarter of the world - where the task is to make the transition to democracy, bring down the existing non-democratic regime, keep the military away from controlling government, and establish a sovereign and functional state. The challenge of expansion is faced by most established democracies, including India: applying the basic principle of democratic government across all regions, all social groups and all institutions, ensuring greater power to local governments, federal power sharing, and inclusion of women and minority groups. The third and deepest challenge, faced by every democracy in some form, is the deepening of democracy - strengthening the institutions and practices of democracy, bringing down the control and influence of the rich and powerful, and making ordinary citizens' participation and control meaningful. The chapter then turns to reform, sets out practical guidelines for devising political reforms that actually work, and closes by asking the student to redefine democracy in the light of everything the course has covered.
Learning Objectives
- Distinguish a challenge from an ordinary problem and explain what makes a difficulty a challenge.
- Identify the three broad kinds of challenges faced by democracies in the world.
- Explain the foundational challenge and name the tasks it involves.
- Explain the challenge of expansion with examples from India and other democracies.
- Explain the challenge of deepening of democracy and why it is faced by every democracy.
- Analyse a given news situation and classify the challenge it represents.
- Explain what is meant by political reform or democratic reform.
- State the guidelines that should be kept in mind while devising ways to reform politics.
- Explain why legal change alone is not sufficient to reform a democracy.
- Redefine democracy using a broad and a refined definition, and state what a good democracy should look like.
Topics in this chapter
6 topics · tap a topic title to jump straight to it.
What Counts as a Challenge?
A challenge is not just a problem
A challenge is not just any problem. We usually call only those difficulties a challenge which are significant and which can be overcome. A challenge is a difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for progress. Once we overcome a challenge we go up to a higher level than before.
Different countries, different challenges
Different countries face different kinds of challenges. At least one fourth of the globe is still not under democratic government. The challenge for democracy in these parts of the world is very stark. These countries face the foundational challenge of making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic government.
Most of the established democracies face the challenge of expansion. The third challenge of deepening of democracy is faced by every democracy in one form or another.
Notice the design of this chapter before going further. It offers a classification, not a list of facts. The exercise it wants is that you should be able to look at any news report about any country and say which of the three challenges it illustrates.
- A challenge is significant, can be overcome, and carries an opportunity for progress.
- At least one fourth of the globe is still not under democratic government.
- The three kinds: foundational, expansion, and deepening.
The Foundational Challenge
Where it applies
This challenge is faced by countries which have not yet made the transition to democracy, or where a non-democratic regime is in power. In these places the very foundation of democratic government has to be laid.
What it involves
- Making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic government.
- Bringing down the existing non-democratic regime.
- Keeping the military away from controlling government.
- Establishing a sovereign and functional state.
Why the last one matters
The fourth task is easy to overlook. A democracy cannot function where the state itself does not function — where it cannot collect taxes, maintain order, or exercise authority over its whole territory. Elections held by a state that cannot enforce any decision produce a government in name only. Sovereignty and basic administrative capacity are preconditions, not luxuries.
- Countries where a military regime holds power face the foundational challenge in its clearest form.
- Keeping the military out of government is a distinct task from holding elections.
- A democracy needs a sovereign and functional state beneath it, or its decisions cannot be carried out.
The Challenge of Expansion
Where it applies
Most countries including India and other democracies face this challenge. It involves applying the basic principle of democratic government across all the regions, different social groups and various institutions.
What it involves
- Ensuring greater power to local governments.
- Extension of federal principle to all the units of the federation.
- Inclusion of women and minority groups.
- Ensuring that fewer decisions remain outside the arena of democratic control.
Reading the last item
That last phrase is the one worth dwelling on. Every democracy has areas where important decisions are taken by people the voters cannot remove — certain economic bodies, certain regulatory authorities, sometimes international agreements. Expansion means bringing more of that territory under democratic control.
Most countries including India face this challenge. Recall the concrete instances already met in this book: the one-third reservation for women in local bodies but not in the Lok Sabha; panchayats with elections but without powers or resources; Union Territories without the powers of a state. Each is a case of democracy not yet fully expanded.
- Greater power to local governments - the unfinished business of the 73rd and 74th Amendments.
- Inclusion of women and minority groups - the pending reservation for women in the Lok Sabha and Assemblies.
- Fewer decisions left outside democratic control - bringing more institutions under the reach of elected authority.
The Challenge of Deepening of Democracy
Where it applies
This challenge is faced by every democracy in one form or another. Even the oldest and most secure democracies face it, which is why it is described as the deepest of the three.
What it involves
- Strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy.
- Strengthening those institutions that help people's participation and control.
- This requires an attempt to bring down the control and influence of the rich and powerful people in making governmental decision.
Why it is never finished
The forms this takes vary from country to country, so the chapter does not give a single prescription. But the direction is constant: to make the ordinary citizen's participation real rather than formal, and to reduce the gap between the influence a rich citizen has over a decision and the influence a poor citizen has.
Set this beside the previous chapter's finding that political equality has not produced economic equality, and the money-and-muscle-power challenge from the chapter on political parties. Those are not separate topics; they are the deepening challenge described from two other directions.
- Every democracy, however old, faces this challenge in some form.
- Bringing down the influence of the rich and powerful over governmental decisions is the central task.
- It connects directly to the money and muscle power challenge in political parties, and to the persistence of economic inequality.
Thinking about Political Reform
What reform means
All the suggestions or proposals about overcoming various challenges to democracy are called democracy reform or political reform.
Generally, all the proposals and suggestions are concerned with making democracy better. But there is no single or unique solution.
Five guidelines
- It is very tempting to think of legal ways of reforming politics, of passing a law banning all undesirable things. But legal-constitutional changes by themselves cannot overcome challenges to democracy. Democratic reforms are to be brought about principally through political practice.
- Any legal change must carefully look at what results it will have on politics. Sometimes the results may be counter-productive. Generally, laws that seek to ban something are not very successful in politics. Laws that give political actors incentives to do good things have more chances of working.
- The best laws are those which empower people to carry out democratic reforms. The Right to Information Act is a good example of a law that empowers the people to find out what is happening in government and act as a watchdog of democracy. Such a law helps to control corruption and supplements the existing laws that banned corruption and imposed strict penalties.
- Any proposal for political reforms should think not only about what is a good solution but also about who will implement it and how. It is not very wise to expect the legislatures or parliament to pass legislations that go against the interest of all the political parties and MPs. The measures that rely on democratic movements, citizens' organisations and the media are likely to succeed.
- Democratic reforms are to be carried out mainly by political activists, parties, movements and politically conscious citizens.
The second and third guidelines together are the practical heart of this chapter: ban less, empower more. The anti-defection law banned something and had a side effect; the Right to Information empowered somebody and worked.
- Laws that ban things generally fail in politics; laws that create incentives to do good have more chance.
- The Right to Information Act is the model reform - it empowers citizens to act as watchdogs.
- Do not expect Parliament to pass a law against the interests of all parties and MPs; rely on movements, citizens' organisations and the media.
Redefining Democracy
The broad definition
In a democracy the ruler has to be elected by the people. This is the minimum condition, and it was where the course began.
The refined definition
By the end of the course, that minimum is clearly not enough. A democracy must have the following features.
- The major decisions by elected leaders, not by unelected ones.
- Election offering a choice and fair opportunity to the people to change the current rulers.
- This choice and opportunity available to all the people on an equal basis.
- The exercise of this choice leading to a government limited by basic rules of the constitution and citizens' rights.
The good democracy
A good democracy is one where the citizens are equal political actors. It should produce a government that follows constitutional norms and procedures, one that is accountable, responsive and legitimate, one that accommodates social diversity, and one that promotes the dignity and freedom of the individual.
Read the four features again and you will find the whole book inside them: the first is about elected representatives and institutions, the second and third about free and fair elections and political equality, and the fourth about the constitution, rights and the limits on power. The last chapter is not new material — it is the course, restated as a standard against which any real democracy, including India's, can be measured.
- Broad definition: the ruler has to be elected by the people.
- Refined definition adds four conditions: decisions by elected leaders, real choice, equal access to that choice, and a government limited by the constitution and rights.
- A good democracy makes citizens equal political actors, not merely equal voters.
Key Concepts
- Challenge
- A difficulty that is significant and can be overcome, carrying within it an opportunity for progress to a higher level.
- Foundational challenge
- The challenge faced by countries not yet democratic - making the transition to democracy, bringing down a non-democratic regime, keeping the military out of government, and establishing a sovereign and functional state.
- Challenge of expansion
- Applying the basic principle of democratic government across all regions, social groups and institutions, including greater power to local government and inclusion of women and minorities.
- Deepening of democracy
- Strengthening democratic institutions and practices, increasing people's participation and control, and reducing the influence of the rich and powerful over decisions.
- Political reform
- Also called democratic reform; any proposal or suggestion aimed at overcoming the challenges to democracy and making it better.
- Right to Information Act
- A law empowering citizens to find out what is happening in government and act as watchdogs - the textbook's model of a reform that empowers rather than bans.
- Counter-productive
- Producing the opposite of the intended result; a risk in any legal change to politics, especially laws that simply ban something.
- Broad definition of democracy
- A form of government in which the ruler has to be elected by the people - the minimum condition.
- Refined definition of democracy
- A system in which major decisions are taken by elected leaders, elections offer a real choice on an equal basis, and government is limited by the constitution and citizens' rights.
- Good democracy
- One in which citizens are equal political actors, and government is accountable, responsive, legitimate, accommodates diversity and promotes dignity and freedom.
Practice Questions
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What is meant by a 'challenge' in the context of democracy? / लोकतंत्र के संदर्भ में 'चुनौती' से क्या अभिप्राय है?
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A challenge is a difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for progress; it is not just any problem but one we can overcome to reach a higher level, which means responding to it strengthens democracy. / चुनौती वह कठिनाई है जिसके भीतर प्रगति का अवसर छिपा होता है; यह कोई भी समस्या नहीं बल्कि वह है जिसे पार करके हम ऊँचे स्तर तक पहुँच सकते हैं, अर्थात उसका सामना करना लोकतंत्र को मजबूत करता है।
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Describe the three broad types of challenges that most democracies face. / अधिकांश लोकतंत्रों के सामने आने वाली तीन व्यापक प्रकार की चुनौतियों का वर्णन कीजिए।
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The three are the foundational challenge of making the transition to democracy and establishing a sovereign, functioning government; the challenge of expansion, applying democratic principles to all regions, groups and levels of government; and the challenge of deepening democracy by strengthening the institutions and practices that realise people's expectations. / तीन हैं—बुनियादी चुनौती जो लोकतंत्र की ओर संक्रमण और एक संप्रभु, कार्यशील सरकार स्थापित करने की है; विस्तार की चुनौती जो लोकतांत्रिक सिद्धांतों को सभी क्षेत्रों, समूहों और सरकार के स्तरों पर लागू करने की है; और लोकतंत्र को गहरा करने की चुनौती जो जनता की अपेक्षाएँ पूरी करने वाली संस्थाओं और प्रथाओं को मजबूत करने की है।
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Explain the 'foundational challenge' to democracy with an example. / लोकतंत्र की 'बुनियादी चुनौती' को एक उदाहरण सहित समझाइए।
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The foundational challenge is faced by countries that are not yet democratic and must bring down the existing non-democratic regime, keep the military out of power, and establish a sovereign and functional state, as faced by countries like Nepal in moving towards democracy. / बुनियादी चुनौती उन देशों के सामने होती है जो अभी लोकतांत्रिक नहीं हैं और जिन्हें मौजूदा गैर-लोकतांत्रिक शासन को हटाना, सेना को सत्ता से दूर रखना, और एक संप्रभु व कार्यशील राज्य स्थापित करना होता है, जैसा नेपाल जैसे देशों ने लोकतंत्र की ओर बढ़ते हुए झेला।
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What is the challenge of expansion of democracy? / लोकतंत्र के विस्तार की चुनौती क्या है?
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It involves applying the basic principle of democratic government across all regions, social groups and institutions, ensuring greater power to local governments, federal sharing of power, and inclusion of women and minority groups; it is faced by established democracies like India and the USA. / इसमें लोकतांत्रिक शासन के मूल सिद्धांत को सभी क्षेत्रों, सामाजिक समूहों और संस्थाओं पर लागू करना, स्थानीय सरकारों को अधिक शक्ति देना, संघीय रूप से सत्ता बाँटना, और महिलाओं तथा अल्पसंख्यक समूहों को शामिल करना शामिल है; इसका सामना भारत और अमेरिका जैसे स्थापित लोकतंत्र करते हैं।
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Why is 'deepening of democracy' the most common challenge faced by every democracy? / 'लोकतंत्र को गहरा करना' हर लोकतंत्र के सामने आने वाली सबसे आम चुनौती क्यों है?
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Every democracy needs to strengthen its institutions and practices so that ordinary people benefit, which requires reducing the control and influence of the rich and powerful and bringing down the gap between democratic ideals and actual functioning; this is faced by all democracies in some form. / हर लोकतंत्र को अपनी संस्थाओं और प्रथाओं को इतना मजबूत बनाना होता है कि आम लोगों को लाभ मिले, जिसके लिए धनी और शक्तिशाली लोगों के नियंत्रण व प्रभाव को घटाना तथा लोकतांत्रिक आदर्शों और वास्तविक कामकाज के बीच की दूरी को पाटना आवश्यक है; इसका सामना सभी लोकतंत्र किसी न किसी रूप में करते हैं।
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State the broad guidelines that should be kept in mind while devising ways to reform politics through laws. / कानूनों के माध्यम से राजनीति में सुधार के उपाय बनाते समय किन व्यापक दिशा-निर्देशों को ध्यान में रखना चाहिए?
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Carefully devised changes in law can help discourage wrong political practices and encourage good ones, but laws alone cannot do it; the main players in democratic reform are the people, political activists, parties, movements and politically conscious citizens, and reform proposals should strengthen democratic practice rather than merely ban things. / सावधानी से बनाए गए कानूनी बदलाव गलत राजनीतिक प्रथाओं को हतोत्साहित और अच्छी प्रथाओं को प्रोत्साहित कर सकते हैं, पर अकेले कानून यह नहीं कर सकते; लोकतांत्रिक सुधार के मुख्य कर्ता जनता, राजनीतिक कार्यकर्ता, दल, आंदोलन और राजनीतिक रूप से जागरूक नागरिक हैं, और सुधार प्रस्तावों को केवल रोक लगाने के बजाय लोकतांत्रिक व्यवहार को मजबूत करना चाहिए।
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Why are legal-constitutional changes by themselves not enough to reform politics? / राजनीति में सुधार के लिए केवल कानूनी-संवैधानिक बदलाव पर्याप्त क्यों नहीं हैं?
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The success of a law depends on how it is implemented and on the political will, since those who have to implement reforms are often the ones who must be reformed; therefore democratic reforms must be carried out mainly by political activists, parties, movements and citizens, not by courts and laws alone. / किसी कानून की सफलता उसके क्रियान्वयन और राजनीतिक इच्छाशक्ति पर निर्भर करती है, क्योंकि सुधार लागू करने वाले प्रायः वही होते हैं जिनमें सुधार की आवश्यकता है; इसलिए लोकतांत्रिक सुधार मुख्यतः राजनीतिक कार्यकर्ताओं, दलों, आंदोलनों और नागरिकों द्वारा किए जाने चाहिए, न कि केवल अदालतों और कानूनों द्वारा।
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Why is the redefinition of democracy considered an ongoing process? / लोकतंत्र की पुनर्परिभाषा को एक सतत प्रक्रिया क्यों माना जाता है?
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As challenges are met, the meaning of democracy keeps expanding; a good definition should include not only formal features like elections and majority rule but also the substance such as people's participation, government's accountability, and the dignity and freedom of citizens, so democracy is constantly redefined as societies progress. / जैसे-जैसे चुनौतियों का सामना होता है, लोकतंत्र का अर्थ विस्तृत होता जाता है; एक अच्छी परिभाषा में केवल चुनाव और बहुमत के शासन जैसी औपचारिक विशेषताएँ ही नहीं, बल्कि जनता की भागीदारी, सरकार की जवाबदेही, और नागरिकों की गरिमा व स्वतंत्रता जैसी सारवस्तु भी शामिल होनी चाहिए, इसलिए समाज की प्रगति के साथ लोकतंत्र निरंतर पुनर्परिभाषित होता है।
Related Laws & Principles
Explore allFoundational laws & principles behind this chapter. Each one opens a full page — what it says, why it matters, five practice questions and the mistakes to avoid.