Chapter 7 — Health and Hygiene

What is health?
Health is more than not being sick. It means the body works well, the mind feels balanced and a person can relate to others and participate in daily life. Physical health includes strong bones, good digestion, healthy breathing and energy for work and study. Mental health includes managing feelings, coping with stress and taking part in family and school life. Social health is about making friends, helping others and living peacefully in the community.

What is hygiene?
Hygiene refers to the practical habits and environmental measures that keep people healthy. It includes washing hands, bathing, cleaning teeth, safe food practices, keeping surroundings tidy and safe disposal of waste. Hygiene reduces germs on the body and in the environment so infections are less likely to spread. It is an everyday set of actions that protects individuals and the whole community.

How health and hygiene are linked
Good hygiene prevents many common illnesses such as diarrhoea, skin infections and respiratory diseases. Good health makes it easier to study and work. The two support each other: when hygiene stops infections, people stay healthier; when people are healthy they can maintain cleanliness and contribute to community well-being. Hygiene is the practical tool that helps achieve and maintain health.

Examples in daily life
Simple acts like washing hands before eating, covering food, and keeping drinking water covered reduce the number of germs you swallow. Bathing and cleaning clothes prevent skin problems and lice. Vaccination and safe waste disposal protect communities from outbreaks. Schools that teach and practise hygiene see fewer sick days and better learning outcomes.

Why it matters for students
Learning about health and hygiene builds habits that last a lifetime. Early practice reduces the risk of long-term problems and supports physical growth and mental focus. Students who understand the reasons behind good hygiene become role models at home and in their neighbourhoods. The aim of this unit is to give knowledge and simple, practical steps that students can follow every day to protect themselves and others.

The protective role of skin
The skin acts as a barrier against germs, chemicals and physical injury. Healthy skin regulates body temperature by sweating and protects internal organs from harmful substances. To keep skin functioning well we must clean it regularly, treat cuts quickly and avoid harsh materials that may irritate the skin. Regular bathing removes sweat, dirt and microbes that accumulate during the day.

Bathing and cleaning
Use clean water and mild soap to wash the body. Pay attention to areas where sweat collects—underarms, groin and between toes—because moist areas allow fungi and bacteria to thrive. After washing, dry skin well to prevent fungal infections. Change into dry, clean clothes after heavy sweating, exercise or playing outdoors.

Hair care and head lice
Clean hair reduces the risk of lice, dandruff and scalp infections. Wash hair at regular intervals according to hair type and activity level. Comb hair to remove tangles and encourage scalp circulation. Head lice spread by direct head-to-head contact and by sharing personal items. If lice are found, follow effective treatment: use a fine-toothed comb to remove lice and nits, wash bedding and clothes, and avoid sharing combs, hats or pillows. Seek parent or health worker advice for medicated treatments when needed.

Nail care and hand hygiene
Keep fingernails and toenails trimmed and clean. Long nails trap dirt and germs and can cause scratches that allow infection. Trim nails regularly with clean tools, avoid biting nails and clean under the nails. After activities like gardening or playing, wash hands thoroughly and dry them to avoid transferring germs to the mouth or food.

Wound care and recognising infections
Minor cuts should be cleaned under running water to remove dirt, then gently dried and covered with a sterile dressing to prevent contamination. Observe wounds for signs of infection: increasing pain, redness, warmth, swelling or pus. If these signs appear, consult a health worker. Avoid applying traditional substances that can contaminate wounds; use clean water and approved antiseptics when available.

Daily habits to promote skin health

• Daily or regular bathing depending on climate and activity.
• Wear clean clothes and change underwear daily.
• Keep feet dry and change socks if wet.
• Use sunscreen and protective clothing to avoid sunburn where appropriate.

Teaching these practical habits helps students prevent common skin and hair problems, maintain dignity and comfort, and reduce spread of skin infections in schools and at home.

Why oral hygiene is important
Oral health affects eating, speech, appearance and overall health. Problems like dental caries (cavities), gum disease, bad breath and toothache arise from poor oral care. Pain from dental problems can reduce appetite, disturb sleep and lower concentration at school. Germs in the mouth can spread to other parts of the body and increase the risk of systemic infections in vulnerable people.

Daily brushing and technique
Brush teeth at least twice a day—once in the morning and once before going to bed. Use a soft toothbrush and a pea-sized amount of fluoride toothpaste. Hold the brush at a 45-degree angle to the gums and use gentle circular motions to clean the outer, inner and chewing surfaces of teeth. Spend about two minutes brushing. Replace your toothbrush every three months or sooner if bristles are splayed.

Cleaning between teeth
Food often gets trapped between teeth where a brush cannot reach. Dental floss or interdental brushes help remove trapped food and plaque, preventing gum inflammation and bad breath. For young children, adults should supervise or assist flossing until the child develops good manual skill.

Diet and its effect on teeth
Frequent consumption of sugary foods and drinks increases acid production by bacteria, causing enamel erosion and cavities. Promote healthier snacks like fruits, nuts and milk. After eating sugary items, rinse the mouth with water if brushing is not immediately possible. Chewing sugar-free gum can stimulate saliva, which neutralises acids and helps clean teeth.

Professional dental care
Regular dental check-ups help detect early cavities and gum problems. Dentists can give fluoride treatments, sealants for children's teeth and repair decayed teeth. Teach students to seek dental help for persistent tooth pain, swelling or bleeding gums. Early treatment avoids more complex procedures later.

Preventive measures and school actions

• Supervised brushing programmes in lower classes.
• Health talks about reducing sugary snacks.
• Referral systems for children needing dental care.

Understanding and practising oral hygiene protects teeth and supports good nutrition, confidence and learning for students throughout their lives.

Why handwashing prevents disease
Hands touch many surfaces and can carry bacteria, viruses and parasites from one place to another. Handwashing with soap removes germs physically and breaks transmission of infections such as diarrhoea, respiratory illnesses and skin infections. It is a low-cost, high-impact practice that can prevent a large number of illnesses when performed correctly and regularly.

When to wash hands
Key times include before eating, before preparing food, after using the toilet, after handling animals, after coughing or sneezing, after playing outdoors, and after touching garbage. Teaching children to clean hands at these moments forms a routine that protects their families as well.

Correct technique step by step
Wet hands under running water, apply enough soap to cover all hand surfaces, rub palms together, scrub the backs of hands, interlace fingers and rub between them, clean the thumbs and fingertips including under nails, and continue scrubbing for at least 20 seconds (singing a short song helps measure time). Rinse thoroughly with running water and dry with a clean towel or air dry. If water is not available, use an alcohol-based hand rub (at least 60% alcohol) until water becomes available.

Respiratory hygiene and cough etiquette
Respiratory infections spread via droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue or the inner elbow when coughing or sneezing. Dispose of tissues immediately and wash hands. Avoid close contact with people who are coughing, and do not spit in public places. Masks may be required in outbreaks or by health guidance to reduce spread in crowded settings.

Hand hygiene in food handling and schools
Food handlers must wash hands before touching food, after handling raw ingredients, after using the toilet and after touching waste. Schools should provide handwashing facilities with soap, clean water and drying means. Demonstrations, posters and scheduled handwashing times—such as before snacks—help build lifelong habits. Monitor supplies to ensure soap and water are always available.

Practical tips to increase compliance

• Use colourful soap and fun reminders to encourage children.
• Install low-level basins or tippy-taps for young children.
• Teach and practise handwashing in class until it becomes automatic.

When everyone in a household or school follows hand and respiratory hygiene, the overall burden of common infections falls sharply, improving attendance and well-being.

Understanding a balanced diet
A balanced diet provides the right kinds and amounts of nutrients for growth, energy and health. For schoolchildren and adolescents, a balanced diet supports rapid growth, brain development and physical activity. It reduces vulnerability to infections and improves concentration, memory and school performance.

Major nutrients and their roles
Carbohydrates are the main energy source for daily activity and brain function; they come from rice, wheat, millets, potatoes and fruits. Proteins build and repair tissues, make enzymes and antibodies, and are obtained from pulses, eggs, fish, meat and dairy. Fats supply concentrated energy and help absorb fat-soluble vitamins; choose healthier fats found in nuts, seeds and vegetable oils. Vitamins and minerals are needed in small amounts but are vital: vitamin A for vision, vitamin C for immunity and iron for blood. Water is essential for digestion, temperature control and transport of nutrients.

Planning simple balanced meals
A practical method is the plate model: half the plate should be vegetables and fruits, one-quarter proteins and one-quarter cereals or starchy foods. Include dairy or a calcium source daily. For snacks, choose fruit, roasted nuts, or yoghurt instead of deep-fried or sugar-rich items. Breakfast should include energy and protein—porridge with milk, bread and eggs, or idli with sambar—so students start the day ready to learn.

Special considerations during adolescence
Adolescents need increased calories, protein, iron (especially girls due to menstruation) and calcium for bone growth. Encourage iron-rich foods such as green leafy vegetables, legumes and fortified cereals, and combine them with vitamin C sources to improve absorption. Promote healthy body image and discourage extreme dieting; balanced meals and physical activity are safer for growth.

Consequences of poor nutrition
Undernutrition leads to stunted growth, weakness and poor school performance. Micronutrient deficiencies cause anaemia, poor vision and lowered immunity. Overnutrition, often due to excess sugars and fats, causes overweight and risk of diabetes and heart disease later in life. Teaching label reading helps students and families make healthier choices within budgets.

Practical classroom activities

• Plan a week of affordable balanced meals using local foods.
• Compare nutrients in common snacks and suggest healthier swaps.
• Discuss mid-day meal importance and hygiene in school kitchens.

Learning about nutrition helps students make daily choices that support their growth, energy and long-term health.

Why safe water matters
Water is essential for drinking, cooking, cleaning and personal hygiene. When water is contaminated with bacteria, viruses or parasites it causes illnesses like diarrhoea, cholera and typhoid, which are major causes of child illness and death. Safe water supports digestion, nutrient absorption and overall health. Ensuring access to safe water is a fundamental step toward better health and learning.

Sources of water and how contamination happens
Common sources include municipal piped supplies, wells, boreholes and surface water like rivers and ponds. Contamination occurs when sewage or animal waste reaches the source, when storage containers are dirty, or when people handle water with unclean hands. Poorly constructed latrines close to wells can pollute groundwater. Agricultural runoff and industrial waste can introduce chemicals that are harmful if present at high levels.

Household water treatment methods
When water quality is uncertain, treat it before drinking. Boiling water for at least one minute kills most pathogens; at high altitudes boil longer. Chlorination using recommended doses of chlorine tablets or liquid bleach is effective against bacteria and many viruses. Solar disinfection (SODIS) involves filling clear PET bottles with water and exposing them to direct sunlight for several hours to reduce microbial contamination. Filtration through clean cloth, ceramic filters or household water filters can remove larger particles and some microbes; combine filtration with disinfection for best results.

Safe water storage
Store treated water in a clean, covered container with a tap if possible, to avoid dipping hands or cups into the water. Clean storage containers regularly and keep them off the ground. Avoid using containers that previously held chemicals for drinking water storage.

Sanitation and toilets
Safe disposal of human waste using toilets or properly constructed latrines prevents contamination of soil and water. Maintain toilets in a clean condition and ensure separate, private facilities for girls to encourage use. Open defecation increases disease risk and environmental contamination; community sanitation programmes aim to provide and maintain latrines and change behaviours.

Community actions and school role

• Protect water sources from animals and waste.
• Maintain drainage to prevent stagnant water and mosquito breeding.
• Teach students safe water handling and how to treat water at home.

By combining safe water supply, household treatment and proper sanitation, communities can greatly reduce water-borne diseases and improve health outcomes for children and adults.

Understanding communicable diseases
Communicable diseases are caused by infectious agents—bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites—that can move from one person to another or through the environment. They spread in many ways and can affect individuals, families and entire communities. Examples include the common cold, influenza, measles, diarrhoeal diseases, tuberculosis and vector-borne diseases like dengue and malaria.

Modes of transmission
Direct contact transmission happens when a person touches an infected person, for example with skin infections. Indirect contact occurs via contaminated surfaces (fomites) like doorknobs or shared utensils. Droplet transmission occurs when droplets from coughs or sneezes land on another person's face or nearby surfaces. Airborne transmission involves tiny particles that can stay suspended and travel further, as sometimes happens with tuberculosis. The fecal-oral route transmits diseases when contaminated food or water is consumed. Vector-borne diseases are spread by carriers such as mosquitoes, ticks or flies which carry pathogens between hosts.

Prevention approaches
Breaking the chain of infection reduces disease spread. Personal steps include handwashing, respiratory etiquette (cover coughs and sneezes), vaccination, safe food and water practices, and avoiding close contact with sick individuals. Environmental measures include sanitation, safe waste disposal, vector control (removing breeding sites, using nets and repellents), and routine cleaning of surfaces. Community-level actions include immunisation campaigns, surveillance and rapid response to outbreaks.

Importance of early detection and response
Recognising symptoms early—such as fever, rash, severe cough or persistent diarrhoea—and seeking timely medical care can prevent further spread. Schools play a critical role: reporting illnesses, isolating suspected contagious cases temporarily, informing parents, and following public health guidance. Contact tracing and targeted measures during outbreaks limit transmission.

Practical preventive steps for students

• Do not share drinking vessels, handkerchiefs or food utensils.
• Follow handwashing routines and cough etiquette strictly.
• Get vaccinated on schedule and encourage family members to do the same.

Understanding how diseases spread and the simple prevention steps available empowers students to protect themselves and their communities, reducing illness and improving school attendance.

Basics of immunity and vaccines
The immune system protects the body from harmful microbes. Vaccines prepare the immune system by presenting a safe form of the germ—weakened, inactivated or parts of it—so the body learns to recognise and fight the real infection later. This produces immune memory without causing the disease itself in most cases. Vaccination is a safe and effective way to prevent many serious illnesses.

Common vaccines and schedules
Childhood immunisation schedules include several vaccines given at defined ages to protect against diseases like tuberculosis, polio, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, measles and hepatitis. Booster doses are given at later ages to maintain immunity. National health authorities provide schedules; schools and parents should ensure children are immunised on time and keep records of vaccines given.

How vaccination protects the community
High vaccination coverage reduces the likelihood of disease spread. When a large portion of the community is immune, even those who cannot be vaccinated—such as infants or people with certain medical conditions—gain indirect protection. This 'herd immunity' helps prevent outbreaks and protect vulnerable individuals. Mass vaccination campaigns can control or eliminate diseases from a region.

Safety, side effects and monitoring
Vaccines undergo rigorous testing before approval. Common mild side effects include low-grade fever or soreness at the injection site; serious adverse events are rare. Health workers monitor vaccine safety and report any problems. Prior to vaccination, disclose allergies or previous adverse reactions to the health worker so they can advise appropriately.

Overcoming vaccine hesitancy
Misinformation can cause fear. Clear communication about benefits, risks and the science behind vaccines helps families make informed decisions. Encourage questions and provide reliable sources of information. Health education in schools can explain how vaccines save lives and why timely immunisation matters.

Role of schools and communities

• Maintain vaccination records and support catch-up vaccination.
• Host immunisation drives in partnership with health authorities.
• Promote awareness of vaccine-preventable diseases and encourage parental consent.

Knowing how vaccines protect both individuals and communities helps students appreciate their role in preventing disease and maintaining public health.

Purpose and scope of first aid
First aid means giving immediate, short-term help to an injured or suddenly ill person until trained medical help is available. Its goals are to preserve life, prevent the condition getting worse, and promote recovery. First aid skills include recognizing emergencies, performing basic life support actions, controlling bleeding, treating burns and fractures, and providing comfort while waiting for professionals.

Assessing the scene and the person
Before helping, ensure the scene is safe—no traffic, fire or electrical danger. Approach the person and check responsiveness and breathing. If the person is unresponsive and not breathing normally, call for emergency help immediately and begin basic life support as trained. If breathing, keep the airway open and place an unconscious but breathing person in the recovery position to maintain a clear airway.

Common first aid measures
For external bleeding, apply direct pressure with a clean cloth and raise the injured limb if there is no suspected fracture. For minor burns, cool with running water for 10–20 minutes and cover with a clean, non-stick dressing; do not apply butter or oil. For fractures, immobilise the limb using splints or padding to prevent movement and reduce pain; avoid moving the person unnecessarily. For choking, encourage coughing if the person can breathe; if severe obstruction occurs, perform age-appropriate back blows and abdominal thrusts (Heimlich manoeuvre) if trained. For fainting, lay the person flat, elevate the legs and loosen tight clothing; check breathing and seek help if recovery is delayed.

First aid kit contents and maintenance
A basic kit should contain sterile gauze, adhesive bandages, adhesive tape, antiseptic wipes, scissors, tweezers, disposable gloves, a thermometer and a simple instruction sheet. Keep the kit in a marked, accessible place and check stock regularly, replacing used or expired items. Schools should have a well-stocked kit and trained staff available.

Limitations and safety
First aid does not replace professional medical care. Helpers should avoid procedures beyond their training and be careful not to worsen injuries. Always call for medical help for severe bleeding, suspected fractures, head injuries, breathing difficulties, severe burns, poisoning, unconsciousness or persistent severe pain. Practise first aid skills under supervision to build confidence.

Record keeping and referral
Document first aid given, time, observations and actions taken, and inform parents or guardians promptly. Provide clear referral information when handing over to healthcare providers to ensure continuity of care.

Understanding menstruation
Menstruation is a natural, monthly shedding of the uterine lining that indicates reproductive health after puberty. It is a normal biological process that many adolescent girls experience. Proper menstrual hygiene helps maintain health, dignity and school attendance. Teaching accurate information reduces fear and stigma and enables girls to manage their periods safely.

Absorbent materials and choices
Common absorbent options include disposable sanitary pads, reusable cloth pads, tampons and menstrual cups. Local availability, comfort, affordability and access to clean water and privacy influence the best choice. Disposable pads are convenient but create waste; reusable pads and menstrual cups are more sustainable if washing and drying facilities are available and privacy is ensured. Tampons and menstrual cups require instruction for safe insertion and removal to avoid discomfort or infection.

Hygienic practices
Change absorbent material every four to six hours, or sooner if it becomes soiled. Wash the genital area with clean water and mild soap as needed, wiping from front to back to reduce infection risk. Wash hands before and after changing materials. For reusable items, wash with soap and water, dry thoroughly in sunlight where possible and store in a clean container. Never share menstrual materials with others.

Disposal and environmental care
Disposable pads should be wrapped and placed in a covered bin; do not flush them down the toilet as this may block sewer systems. Some schools and communities use safe incineration or secure covered bins for sanitary waste collection. Reusable options reduce waste but require reliable water and drying space; teach proper washing and drying techniques to prevent fungal growth.

School infrastructure and support
Schools should provide private, lockable toilets with water, soap and disposal bins. Emergency supplies of sanitary pads can help girls who unexpectedly start menstruating at school. Teachers and staff must be trained to support girls sensitively and refer severe menstrual problems to health services. Education sessions for all students reduce stigma and promote empathy.

Health concerns and when to seek help
Seek medical advice for very heavy bleeding, severe pain, irregular cycles or foul-smelling discharge. Manage pain with recommended analgesics and simple measures like rest and warmth. Combining accurate information, supportive school policies and appropriate facilities helps girls manage menstruation with dignity and continue attending school.

Food-borne illnesses and causes
Food-borne illnesses arise when food contains harmful microorganisms, toxins or chemicals. Poor handling, inadequate cooking, cross-contamination between raw and cooked foods, improper storage, or unclean water and surfaces are common causes. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and fever, which can be severe in young children and the elderly.

Four basic rules of safe food handling
Clean: Wash hands, utensils and surfaces before and after preparing food. Clean fruits and vegetables under running water to remove dirt and possible residues. Separate: Keep raw meats, poultry and seafood separate from ready-to-eat foods; use different chopping boards and knives to avoid cross-contamination. Cook: Cook foods thoroughly to temperatures that kill pathogens; ensure meat is well done and eggs are cooked. Chill: Perishable foods should be refrigerated promptly and not left at room temperature for long. Leftovers should be cooled and stored properly, and reheated thoroughly before eating.

Choosing safe street food and vendors
Street food can be nutritious and affordable but choose vendors who keep food covered, cook fresh items to order, use clean utensils and serve food promptly. Avoid raw salads or unwashed fruits from vendors with uncertain hygiene. Carry hand sanitiser or wash hands before eating if facilities are not available.

School kitchens and midday meals
School kitchens must follow hygiene rules: trained cooks who observe cleanliness, use safe water, clean utensils and proper storage. Food should be cooked fresh, kept covered and served with clean ladles and plates. Regular health checks for kitchen staff and maintaining a clean kitchen environment prevent contamination. Teach students not to share utensils or food without care.

Storage and packaging
Store dry foods in clean, sealed containers to prevent pests. Check expiry dates on packaged foods and teach students how to read labels. Avoid buying damaged or bulging cans and store perishable items in cool conditions. Proper waste disposal near food areas prevents pests that contaminate food.

Practical classroom activities

• Demonstrate handwashing before food handling.
• Compare safe and unsafe food handling practices through role-plays.
• Plan a safe, balanced tiffin using local and affordable items.

Following these practices reduces food poisoning and supports student health and learning.

Vectors and health risks
Vectors are animals or insects that carry disease agents between people or from animals to people. Mosquitoes spread dengue and malaria, flies can transmit diarrhoeal diseases, ticks carry certain fevers, and rodents contaminate food and spread leptospirosis and other infections. Controlling vectors reduces disease incidence and protects community health.

Environmental measures to reduce vector habitats
Many vectors breed in small pools of stagnant water, in heaps of garbage, or around open drains. Simple environmental actions break breeding cycles: empty and clean water containers weekly, store water in covered containers, remove old tyres and discarded containers that collect rainwater, and ensure proper drainage to avoid puddles. Regular cleaning of surroundings, pruning long grass and filling holes that collect water also reduce vector shelters.

Personal protection measures
Use mosquito nets while sleeping, especially in areas with malaria. Apply approved insect repellents on exposed skin and clothing, and use window screens to prevent mosquitoes entering houses. Wear long sleeves and trousers in mosquito-prone times and avoid outdoor activities at dawn and dusk when certain vectors are most active.

Rodent and fly control
Keep food stored in sealed containers and dispose of waste promptly to avoid attracting rodents and flies. Fix holes and gaps in walls and doors to prevent rodent entry. Use covered bins and manage waste so pests do not breed. Involving community services for safe rodent control and pest management ensures proper, non-harmful methods.

School and community actions
Schools should inspect grounds for potential breeding sites, organise periodic clean-up drives, place covered bins and ensure stagnant water is drained. Community involvement—regular clean-up, fogging during outbreaks where recommended, and larval source management—adds effectiveness. Health education campaigns teach families to participate in prevention.

Sustainability and monitoring
Vector control is ongoing. Communities need to monitor for breeding sites and reported cases of vector-borne diseases so that timely action can be taken. Combining environmental hygiene with individual protection and public health measures decreases disease transmission and creates safer living environments for children and adults alike.

Categories of waste and health impact
Waste includes organic (biodegradable) kitchen scraps, recyclable materials (paper, plastic, metal, glass), non-recyclable items and hazardous waste such as medical waste, chemicals and batteries. Poor waste management attracts pests, breeds vectors, pollutes soil and water, and poses direct injury risks from sharp or contaminated items. Managing waste properly reduces these health hazards and protects the environment.

Segregation at source
Separating waste where it is produced makes later disposal easier and safer. Common systems use separate bins for wet compostable waste, dry recyclables and hazardous or sanitary waste. Schools and homes should be taught the local colour coding system so everyone segregates correctly. Clean, dry recyclables should be rinsed before placing them in the recycling bin. Hazardous items, like used syringes or chemical containers, must be handled by authorised services and not thrown into general bins.

Composting biodegradable waste
Composting turns food scraps and garden waste into nutrient-rich soil for plants. Small-scale composting in a compost pit or bin requires layering organic waste, maintaining moisture and aeration and turning the pile occasionally. Composting reduces the volume of waste sent to landfills and produces useful fertiliser for school gardens or home kitchens.

Recycling and reducing waste
Reduce waste by avoiding single-use plastics, choosing products with less packaging and reusing items where possible. Collect clean recyclables and link with local recyclers or waste collection systems. Schools can run drives to collect paper, plastic or metal and engage students in reuse projects like upcycled crafts.

Safe disposal of sanitary and hazardous waste
Sanitary pads and diapers should be wrapped and placed in covered bins; do not flush them. Medical waste must be incinerated or disposed of by registered services. Batteries and electronic waste require special collection points to prevent soil and water contamination. Education and coordination with local municipal systems ensure hazardous waste is handled appropriately.

School programmes and community involvement

• Set up segregation bins with clear labels and trained monitors.
• Start a compost pit for kitchen waste from the school canteen.
• Organise awareness campaigns and tie-ups with local recyclers.

By practising segregation, composting, recycling and safe disposal, students contribute to a cleaner environment and reduce health risks associated with poor waste management.

Purpose of school health services
School health services identify health problems early, provide preventive care and refer students for treatment. Regular screenings for vision, growth, hearing and dental issues allow timely intervention. Vaccination drives, deworming and nutritional monitoring are often organised through schools. First aid, health records and emergency contact systems ensure safety while children are at school.

Health education as a tool for behaviour change
Teaching practical topics—hygiene, nutrition, reproductive health, substance avoidance and mental well-being—gives students knowledge and skills to make healthy choices. Use interactive teaching methods: role-plays, demonstrations, health clubs, projects and peer education. Health education should be age-appropriate, culturally sensitive and encourage critical thinking so students can apply lessons at home and in the community.

Record-keeping, referrals and follow-up
Maintain health records that list immunisation status, chronic conditions, allergies and emergency contacts. These records help in planning health activities and responding quickly during emergencies. When screenings identify problems, schools should refer students to local clinics and follow up to ensure care was received. Communication with parents about health issues and consent for interventions is essential.

Mental health and counselling services
Mental health support is part of comprehensive school health. Counselling services help students cope with stress, family problems, academic pressure and social issues. Schools should have clear referral pathways to specialised services for more severe cases. Teachers trained in basic psychosocial support can recognise warning signs and provide initial assistance.

Community and health system linkages
Collaboration with local health departments, NGOs and parents enhances reach and quality of services. Schools can host vaccination camps, health education sessions and follow national health programme initiatives. Student health clubs can lead awareness drives and support peer-led activities.

Creating a healthy school environment

• Ensure clean water and sanitation facilities.
• Provide nutritious mid-day meals where available.
• Maintain safe playgrounds and promote physical activity.

Combining services and education helps schools become centres of health promotion that benefit students, families and communities.

Common illnesses among schoolchildren
Children frequently experience illnesses such as the common cold, sore throat, diarrhoea, conjunctivitis (eye infection), scabies (skin infection), ringworm and fever from various causes. Most are mild, but some spread rapidly in school settings. Recognising common symptoms and following prevention rules helps keep outbreaks small and safeguards vulnerable students.

Recognising warning signs
Be alert for high or persistent fever, difficulty breathing, severe abdominal pain or diarrhoea, persistent vomiting, convulsions, a spreading rash with fever, or any sign of serious injury or bleeding. These require immediate medical attention. Mild symptoms like slight cough or cold without fever may be managed at home with rest and fluids, following school guidelines.

School exclusion and return policies
Clear policies help decide when a child should stay home. Children with fever, vomiting, diarrhoea or contagious skin conditions should remain at home until they are no longer infectious and have recovered sufficiently to participate in school activities. For illnesses like chickenpox, wait until lesions crust over. Schools should communicate exclusion rules to parents and ensure safe return-to-school procedures, including medical clearance when indicated.

Prevention and outbreak control
Preventive actions include routine cleaning, handwashing, cough etiquette, not sharing personal items, and immunisation. During suspected outbreaks, increase cleaning frequency, inform parents and health authorities, monitor contacts and consider temporary exclusion or targeted measures as advised by public health officials. Prompt reporting of clusters of illness helps rapid public health response.

Deworming and micronutrient programmes
Many schools participate in organised deworming and vitamin supplementation programmes to reduce worm burden and anaemia, improving children’s energy and learning capacity. These programmes are typically run with parental consent and health department support. Regular health education about hygiene and nutrition complements these interventions.

Supporting sick students and families
Provide a quiet isolation area for a child who becomes unwell at school and contact parents promptly. Keep records of incidents and ensure follow-up. Health clubs and parent-teacher groups can help spread awareness of symptoms and reinforce prevention at home.

Defining mental health for students
Mental health means emotional and psychological well-being. It enables students to cope with everyday stress, learn new things, form friendships and make decisions. Good mental health helps with concentration, motivation and resilience. Mental health is influenced by family, friendships, school atmosphere, physical health and biological factors.

Recognising signs of distress
Changes in behaviour, persistent sadness, withdrawal from activities, drop in academic performance, sleep or appetite changes, frequent physical complaints like headaches, or talk of hopelessness are signs that a student may need support. Teachers and parents should notice these changes and respond with care, not blame. Early recognition and support prevent problems from worsening.

Promoting mental well-being at school
Schools can promote well-being by creating a safe, inclusive environment where bullying is not tolerated. Encourage peer support groups, teach problem-solving and stress management skills, include relaxation exercises and promote physical activity. Providing time for play, arts and expressive activities supports emotional development. Teaching time management and study skills helps reduce academic stress.

Support and counselling
School counsellors or trained staff can provide listening, basic guidance and referrals for more specialised care. Confidentiality is important: students must feel safe to share. For serious issues—self-harm, severe depression, eating disorders, psychosis—refer quickly to mental health professionals. Engage families in a supportive, non-judgemental way when arranging help.

Bullying prevention and peer relationships
Bullying harms mental health. Implement clear anti-bullying policies, encourage reporting and teach conflict resolution and empathy. Peer mediation programmes help students resolve disagreements with adult support. Celebrate diversity and teach respectful behaviour to build a positive school culture.

Practical tips for students

• Maintain healthy routines: sleep, diet and exercise.
• Talk to a trusted adult when worried.
• Use relaxation techniques such as deep breathing before exams.

By integrating mental health into school life and offering support, schools help students thrive academically and socially, preparing them for healthy adult lives.

What is health promotion?
Health promotion empowers people to take control over their health by increasing knowledge, improving skills and creating supportive environments. It involves education, policy changes and community action to encourage healthy behaviour—such as handwashing, immunisation, healthy eating and safe sanitation—so that individuals and communities can prevent disease and improve quality of life.

Types of community health programmes
Programmes can be preventive, curative or promotive. Preventive programmes include vaccination drives, deworming campaigns and sanitation missions. Curative services involve primary health centres providing treatment. Promotive activities include nutrition education, school health clubs and behaviour change campaigns. Many national and local programmes use schools as platforms to reach children and families efficiently.

Role of schools and students
Schools act as hubs for health promotion by teaching health topics, hosting immunisation camps, running midday meal schemes and organising cleanliness drives. Students can form health clubs to lead peer education, run awareness campaigns in the neighbourhood and participate in community clean-ups. Involving students gives programmes energy and spreads messages directly to families through children.

Community involvement and partnerships
Successful programmes collaborate with local health departments, non-governmental organisations, parents, and community leaders. These partnerships ensure resources, culturally appropriate messaging and follow-up services. Regular meetings with community stakeholders help tailor programmes to local needs and maintain momentum.

Behaviour change communication
Changing behaviour takes time and repetition. Effective communication uses simple messages, demonstrations, role models, local languages and repeated exposure through schools, radio and community events. Use practical demonstrations—handwashing stations, safe water treatment shows and healthy cooking demonstrations—to build skills, not just knowledge.

Monitoring, evaluation and sustainability
Track indicators such as immunisation coverage, reduced disease incidence, increased handwashing or improved school attendance to measure impact. Sustainable programmes build local capacity, use low-cost technologies and secure community ownership so activities continue after initial support ends. Engaging students in monitoring helps them learn and contributes to long-term health gains.